A biotechnology revolution is proceeding in tandem with international proliferation of intellectual property regimes and rights. Does the intellectual property impede agricultural research conducted in, or of consequence for, developing countries? This question has important spatial dimensions that link the location of production, the pattern of international trade, and the jurisdiction of intellectual property. Our main conclusion is that the current concerns about the freedom to operate in agricultural research oriented towards food crops for the developing world are exaggerated. Rights to intellectual property are confined to the jurisdictions where they are granted, and, presently, many of the intellectual property (IP) rights for biotechnologies potentially useful to developing-country agricultural producers are valid only in developed countries. IP problems might arise in technologies destined for crops grown in developing countries unencumbered by IP restrictions, if those crops are subsequently exported to countries in which IP is likely to prevail. Thus freedom to trade is also part of the IP story. However, using international production and trade data in the 15 crops critical to food security throughout the developing world, we show that exports from developing to developed countries are generally dwarfed by production and consumption in the developing world, the value of these exports is concentrated in a few crops and a few exporting countries, and the bulk of these exports go to Western Europe. Thus for now, most LDC researchers can focus primarily on domestic IPR in determining their freedom to operate with respect to food staples. Undue concern with current freedom to operate is diverting attention from the lack of financial and technical support necessary for the effective generation, evaluation, adaptation, and regulation of newly available technologies by public and international nonprofit breeders in LDCs, given the continued inability of private-sector research to fill the gap.

Agricultural Research (CGIAR or CG for short) is a nonprofit consortium of countries, international agencies, and foundations that in 1999 provided $330 million for agricultural research and development (R&D) carried out by 16 international research centers. The intended beneficiaries are poor people in developing countries, although developed countries share in some of the benefits (Pardey et al.). In addition, the CG currently holds some 630,000 germplasm accessions of the approximate 6.2 million accessions conserved globally for the benefit of future generations. This article sketches interorganizational relations between the CG and the private sector to shed light on the CG's intellectual property (IP) strategies. We suggest a method for further analysisa meta-modeling-of-relationships approach (MEMOREL).The Green Revolution was greatly facilitated by the international flows of information, breeding lines, and improved crop varieties. These transfers were unencumbered by intellectual property rights (IPR), and the CG was a crucial element of this network. However, the research policy environment surrounding the CG has generously supplied patent information.We are grateful for funding from the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and the Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics. changed dramatically in the decades since its 1971 creation. Major changes include the biotechnology revolution, the information revolution (wherein genomics and bioinformatics constitute a convergence between the biotech and information revolutions), the communications revolution, the ascendancy of the private sector in agricultural R&D, and the proliferation of IPR.In the Internet age the costs of establishing and maintaining relations, whether interpersonal or interorganizational, are decreasing rapidly. This has consequences for real-world management as well as for economic theory. Managers and policymakers need to think more systematically than in the past about relations and must take steps to initiate or otherwise influence relations more frequently. In R&D-intensive industries, skillful management of interorganizational relations facilitating information flows is a key success factor. No firm, however big, is able to conduct cutting-edge R&D in isolation from the rest of the world.Economic theory is likely to reflect the increased importance of relations. Advances in information technology and modeling techniques enable greater complexity in theoretical and empirical analysis. Adding to the classic auctioneer model of competitive markets is a suite of models that take interactions between market parties explicitly into account. Network thinking is finding its way into economics.Networking was central to the CG from its beginning. However, the CG's networking concepts need to be adapted to the new realities of IPR proliferation and private-sector dominance of R&D (Binenbaum et al.). This requires a systematic analysis of interorganizational relations with the private sector. The next section, based on Binenbaum, ...

"This article sketches how insights from applied game theory can be applied to Research and Development (R&D) consortia using a case study on an international plant breeding consortium. The insights jointly comprise a new "logic of collective action in R&D," which is inspired by Olson's Logic of Collective Action but goes beyond it. We analyze R&D consortia as institutions that respond to a variety of incentive problems which are obstacles to realizing the benefits of cooperation that arise due to the public goods nature of outputs, complementarities of inputs, and economies of scale and scope. Additionally, we sketch a "big-picture" consortium game, which abstracts from specific incentive issues. "("JEL "B41, D02, H41, O31, O32) Copyright (c) 2008 Western Economic Association International.

Village funds is still a new fiscal policy that was initially launched in 2015 by the seventh president of Indonesia, “Joko Widodo”, as his pilot project. Some villages have significantly benefited from developments and improvements initiated by the policy. However, it also has been identified through various investigative analysis that not all village funds allocations transferred to local governments have been implemented effectively and efficiently. This research examines the relationship between the village funds allocations and poverty alleviation in Aceh province, Indonesia. Using a panel data model that provides random-effects estimations, it concludes the village funds allocations from the period of 2015 to 2018 cannot reduce the poverty rate in 23 regencies/municipalities in Aceh. Fiscal variables, government expenditure and government own revenue have also shown a positive relationship with the poverty rate. Furthermore, with fixed-effects estimation, village funds allocations also show the same result of its relationship with the number of people living in poverty. Meanwhile, one fiscal variable, GDRP has a negative and significant relationship with the number of people living in poverty. Some social variables, such as education and population have also had significant and negative effects on the poverty rate and the number of people living in poverty.