Token systems have been implemented to change behavior across species and settings. Token systems involve token-production, exchange-production, and token-exchange schedules. The current study evaluated the effects of fixed-ratio and yoked time exchange-production schedules on four preschoolers' responding on an arbitrary, ageappropriate task. Following an initial A-B-A reversal demonstrating a primary reinforcement effect, we used a multi-element design to compare exchange-production schedule conditions and a control condition in which participants earned tokens that were not exchangeable. Following the exchange-production schedule comparison, we examined participants' preferences for the control and exchange-production schedule arrangements. For all participants, tokens exchangeable for backup reinforcers functioned as generalized conditioned reinforcers; however, no consistent differences in responding occurred between the fixed-ratio and yoked time exchange-production conditions. Clear but different preferences for one of the exchange-production schedules emerged for both participants whose preferences were assessed via repeated measurement. These findings support the use of token systems with tokens exchangeable for backup reinforcers with children and arranging the exchangeproduction schedule based on the practical benefit given the context and/or learner preference.

Poor reading skills during elementary school are linked to future school failure, significant reading difficulties during adulthood, crime, and early mortality. One predictor of poor reading skills is the failure to correctly emit letter sounds during preschool (NELP, 2008). The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of traditional drill and strategic incremental rehearsal flashcard methods on letter-sound correspondence with 5 preschool children. Mastery criterion for both intervention conditions was met in 7 of 8 evaluations, and no participant mastered the letter sets in the probe-only (control) condition. Participants mastered letter sounds in the traditional drill condition first for 4 evaluations and in the strategic incremental rehearsal condition first for 4 evaluations. For 5 of 6 evaluations in which follow-up data were collected, the number of correct responses remained relatively stable across weeks. Findings demonstrate the utility of flashcard methods to teach letter-sound correspondence to preschool children and suggest that flashcard interventions should be considered when class instruction is insufficient to teach essential early reading skills to young children.

Students who fail to acquire foundational literacy skills during preschool are more likely to read below grade level average in elementary school and are at a heightened risk for future school failure, poverty, early mortality, and crime. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects and maintenance of and preference for paired kinesthetic movements (KM) to a traditional drill (TD) procedure on letter–sound correspondence and word recognition with 6 preschool children. In 6 of 11 evaluations, participants mastered the KM set in substantially fewer intervention sessions than the TD set. In 5 of 11 evaluations, participants mastered the KM and TD sets with little differentiation between the number of intervention sessions. No participant mastered the control set. Maintenance data demonstrate a higher number of correct responses for the KM condition across all weeks. Preference varied across participants and was not always consistent with the more effective intervention.

Disruptive behavior in the classroom contributes to a host of other negative outcomes (e.g., lost instructional time, teacher burnout). The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is an effective intervention to reduce disruptive behavior across all grade levels, including preschool. The GBG involves multiple components, including dividing the class into teams. In the current study, we compared 1-, 2-, and 5-team versions of the GBG. Following an initial phase of standard teacher contingencies (no GBG), we used a multielement design in which GBG versions and a standard teacher contingencies condition alternated across days in 4 preschool classes. Following the intervention comparison, we examined teacher and paraprofessional preference for the GBG and the various team size versions using a concurrent chains arrangement. In all classes, all versions of the GBG consistently reduced disruptive behavior to a level below standard teacher contingencies, but we observed no difference between GBG versions. The different team arrangements produced differences in the likelihood of all or no students earning the reward. In general, the teaching staff in 3 classes preferred the 2-team version, and the paraprofessional in 1 class showed no clear preference. These findings support the use of the traditional version of the GBG in which the class is divided into 2 teams.

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