The angiotensin II type I receptor (AGTR1) has been implicated in diverse aspects of human disease, from the regulation of blood pressure and cardiovascular homeostasis to cancer progression. We sought to investigate the role of AGTR1 in cell proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), migration, invasion, angiogenesis and tumor growth in the breast cancer cell line MCF7. Stable overexpression of AGTR1 was associated with accelerated cell proliferation, concomitant with increased expression of survival factors including poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP), as well as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. AGTR1-overexpressing MCF7 cells were more aggressive than their parent line, with significantly increased activity in migration and invasion assays. These observations were associated with changes in EMT markers, including reduced E-cadherin expression and increased p-Smad3, Smad4 and Snail levels. Treatment with the AGTR1 antagonist losartan attenuated these effects. AGTR1 overexpression also accelerated tumor growth and increased Ki-67 expression in a xenograft model. This was associated with increased tumor angiogenesis, as evidenced by a significant increase in microvessels in the intratumoral and peritumoral areas, and enhanced tumor invasion, with the latter response associated with increased EMT marker expression and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9) upregulation. In vivo administration of losartan significantly reduced both tumor growth and angiogenesis. Our findings suggest that AGTR1 plays a significant role in tumor aggressiveness, and its inhibition may have therapeutic implications.

Tumor metastasis remains the cause of 90% of cancer-related deaths. Cancer stem cells (CSC) are thought to be responsible for the aggressive and metastatic nature of triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC), and new therapeutic strategies are being devised to target them. Flubendazole (FLU) is a widely used anthelmintic agent that also exhibits anticancer activity in several cancer types. The aim of this study was to characterize the mechanism of action of FLU on breast cancer stem cell (BCSC)-like properties and metastasis in TNBC. FLU treatment caused a significant induction of apoptosis, accompanied by G2/M phase accumulation, caspase-3/-7 activation and the dysregulation of STAT3 activation in TNBC cells. The latter phenomenon was associated with impairment of cancer stem-like traits, concomitant with a reduction in the CD24 /CD44 , CD24 /CD49f subpopulation, ALDH1 activity and mammosphere formation. The BCSC-enriched populations exhibited enhanced metastasis with higher STAT3 activation, while FLU administration inhibited tumor growth, angiogenesis and lung and liver metastasis, coinciding with decreased MMP-2 and MMP-9 levels in circulating blood. FLU kills not only rapid proliferating tumor cells but also effectively eradicates BCSC-like cells in vitro and in vivo. Our findings warrant further investigation of FLU as a treatment for metastatic TNBC.

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive tumor subtype with an enriched CD44+/CD24- stem-like population. Salinomycin is an antibiotic that has been shown to target cancer stem cells (CSC); however, the mechanisms of action involved have not been well characterized. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of salinomycin on cell death, migration, and invasion, as well as CSC-like properties in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Salinomycin significantly induced anoikis-sensitivity, accompanied by caspase-3 and caspase-8 activation and PARP cleavage, during anchorage-independent growth. Salinomycin treatment also caused a marked suppression of cell migration and invasion with concomitant downregulation of MMP-9 and MMP-2 mRNA levels. Notably, salinomycin inhibited the formation of mammospheres and effectively reduced the CD44+/CD24- stem-like population during anchorage-independent growth. These observations were associated with the inhibition of STAT3 phosphorylation (Tyr705). Furthermore, interleukin-6 (IL-6)-induced STAT3 activation was strongly suppressed by salinomycin challenge. These findings support the notion that salinomycin may be potentially efficacious for targeting breast cancer stem-like cells through the inhibition of STAT3 activation.