Aquaporins (AQPs) are an ancient family of channel proteins that transport water and neutral solutes through a pore and are found in all eukaryotes and most prokaryotes. A comparison of the amino acid sequences and phylogenetic analysis of 31 full-length cDNAs of maize (Zea mays) AQPs shows that they comprise four different groups of highly divergent proteins. We have classified them as plasma membrane intinsic proteins (PIPs), tonoplast intrinsic proteins, Nod26-like intrinsic proteins, and small and basic intrinsic proteins. Amino acid sequence identities vary from 16% to 100%, but all sequences share structural motifs and conserved amino acids necessary to stabilize the two loops that form the aqueous pore. Most divergent are the small and basic integral proteins in which the first of the two highly conserved Asn-Pro-Ala motifs of the pore is not conserved, but is represented by alanine-proline-threonine or alanine-proline-serine. We present a model of ZmPIP1-2 based on the three-dimensional structure of mammalian AQP1. Tabulation of the number of times that the AQP sequences are found in a collection of databases that comprises about 470,000 maize cDNAs indicates that a few of the maize AQPs are very highly expressed and many are not abundantly expressed. The phylogenetic analysis supports the interpretation that the divergence of PIPs through gene duplication occurred more recently than the divergence of the members of the other three subfamilies. This study opens the way to analyze the function of the proteins in Xenopus laevis oocytes, determine the tissue specific expression of the genes, recover insertion mutants, and determine the in planta function.

adenocarcinoma of the prostate ͉ CD4ϩ and͞or CD8 ϩ T cell ͉ cytotoxic T cell ͉ antigen-presenting cell ͉ hormone therapy

The main purpose of urine cytology is to detect high-grade urothelial carcinoma (HGUC). With this principle in mind, The Paris System (TPS) Working Group, composed of cytopathologists, surgical pathologists, and urologists, has proposed and published a standardized reporting system that includes specific diagnostic categories and cytomorphologic criteria for the reliable diagnosis of HGUC. This paper outlines the essential elements of TPS and the process that led to the formation and rationale of the reporting system. The Paris System Working Group, organized at the 2013 International Congress of Cytology, conceived a standardized platform on which to base cytologic interpretation of urine samples. The widespread dissemination of this approach to cytologic examination and reporting of urologic samples and the scheme's universal acceptance by pathologists and urologists is critical for its success. For urologists, understanding the diagnostic criteria, their clinical implications, and the limitations of TPS is essential if they are to utilize urine cytology and noninvasive ancillary tests in a thoughtful and practical manner. This is the first international/inclusive attempt at standardizing urinary cytology. The success of TPS will depend on the pathology and urology communities working collectively to improve this seminal paradigm shift, and optimize the impact on patient care.

Objective  To determine the effect of repeated and prolonged vaginal distension on the leak‐point pressure (LPP) and urethral anatomy in the female rat, as prolonged vaginal distension has been clinically correlated with signs of stress urinary incontinence (SUI). Materials and methods  Sixty female rats were placed into one of five groups; four groups underwent one of four vaginal distension protocols using a modified 10 F Foley catheter, i.e. prolonged (1 h), brief (0.5 h), intermittent (cycling inflated/deflated for 0.5 h) or sham distension. All animals had a suprapubic bladder catheter implanted 2 days after and were assessed urodynamically 4 days after vaginal distension. The fifth group of rats acted as controls and did not undergo vaginal distension, but did have a suprapubic bladder catheter placed and urodynamics assessed. To measure LPP the rats were anaesthetized with urethane, placed supine and the bladder filled with saline (5 mL/h) while bladder pressure was measured via the bladder catheter. LPPs were measured three times in each animal by manually increasing the abdominal pressure until leakage at the urethral meatus, when the external abdominal pressure was rapidly released. Peak bladder pressure was taken as the LPP and a mean value calculated for each animal. Immediately after measuring LPP the urethra was removed and processed routinely for histology (5 µm sections, stained with haematoxylin/eosin and trichrome). The means ( sem ) were compared using a Kruskal–Wallis one‐way anova on ranks, followed by a Dunn's test, with P  < 0.05 indicating a significant difference. Results  Both LPP and the external increase in abdominal pressure were significantly lower after prolonged distension, at 31.4 (1.7) and 19.8 (1.2) cmH 2 O, than in the sham group, at 41.1 (3.2) and 32.0 (4.7) cmH 2 O, respectively. There were no significant differences in LPP or in the increase in abdominal pressure between the brief, intermittent and sham groups. Qualitative histology showed that prolonged distension resulted in extensive disruption and marked thinning of urethral skeletal muscle fibres. Brief and intermittent distension showed mild and focal disruptions, respectively. Conclusions  As observed clinically, prolonged vaginal distension results in a lower LPP, greater anatomical injury and increased severity of SUI. These results suggest that ischaemia is important in the development of SUI after prolonged vaginal distension.