This study showed that patients with CHF may have intestinal overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria and Candida species and increased IP associated with clinical disease severity, venous blood congestion, and inflammation.

In the very early stages of reperfusion, apoptosis is first seen in the endothelial cells from small coronary vessels. The radial spread of apoptosis to surrounding cardiac myocytes suggests that reperfusion induces the release of soluble pro-apoptotic mediators from endothelial cells that promote myocyte apoptosis.

Non-obese, free-living patients with clinically stable CHF have an inadequate intake of calories and protein and reduced energy availability for physical activity.