In the theoretical literature on tolerance a distinction is proposed between coexistence and respect tolerance. In three studies with four national samples of Dutch majority members, we demonstrate that these two forms of tolerance can be distinguished empirically in relation to different immigrant target groups. The findings of all studies further show that the more principled respect tolerance was negatively associated with prejudice towards immigrants, and positively associated with the acceptance of concrete minority practices, above and beyond prejudice. However, the positive association between respect tolerance and acceptance of practices was weaker for people who were more strongly concerned about the continuity of their national cultural identity. Overall, the more pragmatic coexistence tolerance was found to have no independent association with prejudicial feelings and with the acceptance of minority practices. The findings indicate that stimulating respect tolerance might be particularly helpful for improving intergroup relations in culturally diverse societies.

This research examines the role of deprovincialization, conceptualized in terms of a nuanced perspective on one's in-group culture, for majority members' support for immigrants' cultural practices and expressive rights. In three studies using data from samples drawn from nationally representative panels in the Netherlands (additionally analyzed in an internal meta-analysis of N = 1,791), it was found that deprovincialization is a unique and robust predictor of support for immigrant rights, above and beyond prejudicial feelings, political orientation, level of education, gender, age, and religious affiliation. Furthermore, deprovincialization was found to be independent of national identification, which in previous research has been used as a proxy for deprovincialization. Additionally and in trying to conceptually replicate the pattern of findings (Studies 2 and 3), two different measures of perceived concern about the continuity of the in-group culture and identity were found to weaken the deprovincialization-support association. The findings go beyond existing research by focusing on the cultural openness understanding of deprovincialization and demonstrating the robust importance of how majority members understand their in-group for their support of immigrants' practices and rights. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

There have been strong debates in many European countries about religious identity enactment of Muslims, with the wearing of the headscarf in public places being a central symbolic topic. This study investigated the importance of the context (private versus three public contexts) for tolerance of Muslim identity enactment (e.g., the wearing of headscarves) among a national sample of Dutch majority group members. Using an experimental design, it was found that tolerance was highest in the private context, followed by the street context and then the contexts of work. Furthermore and in all contexts, tolerance of Muslims persuading others to start enacting their religious identity in a similar way was lower than tolerance of identity enactment itself. Moreover, both types of tolerance were found to differ by context only for majority members who were highly concerned about the continuity of their ingroup's cultural identity (i.e., cultural continuity). It is concluded that context‐related and action‐related variance, as well as cultural continuity, are important for majority members' tolerance of Muslim minority identity enactment.

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Introduction and Discussion 1.1 Research objectives 1.2 Theoretical and empirical background 1.3 Research contexts 1.4 Overview of the empirical chapters 1.5 Insights 1.6 Discussion Chapter 2 Tolerance of minority practices: The roles of deprovincialization and identity continuity concern 2.1 14 CH A P T ER 1relation between tolerance and these three aspects by looking at the extent to which majority group members: 1) endorse a deprovincialized, nuanced perspective of their ingroup; 2) display outgroup respect for outgroup members as equal citizens; and 3) consider it important that the ingroup and outgroup harmoniously coexist.16sometimes the focus is on immigrant groups in general and specific practices of these groups (e.g., raising children with own cultural traditions); sometimes on religious minority practices (e.g., ritual slaughter, which can be a Jewish or a Muslim tradition); and sometimes on Muslim minorities specifically (e.g., a Muslim woman wearing a headscarf ). Each study has a particular focus which will be explained per chapter, but as a whole the dissertation covers a diversity of minority groups and practices in order not to limit the study of tolerance to one target-group and one practice only. This makes it possible to examine whether explanations for tolerance generalize across target-groups (i.e., Western immigrants, non-Western immigrants, Muslim immigrants: see Chapter 3) and different type of actions (e.g., enacting a practice or mobilizing others: see Chapter 4). In this synthesis I summarize these under the header 'minority practices', and will specify the focus in the respective chapters.The remainder of this Introductory chapter is structured as follows. First, I will discuss the theoretical and empirical background of tolerance, and its relation to the explanatory and conditioning factors described above. Second, I will elaborate on the research contexts of the Netherlands and Germany, and third, I will present the data and methods used for the empirical studies in this dissertation. Fourth, I will synthesize the insights from the four empirical studies. Finally, the contributions of this dissertation, its implications, limitations, directions for future research and overall conclusions are discussed. Theoretical and empirical background 1.2.1 Intergroup toleranceTolerance is a concept widely used and in various ways, as well as in different scientific fields. However, in the literature two main understandings of tolerance are proposed and examined. First, in the social psychological literature, starting with the seminal work of Allport (1954), tolerance is often understood in its modern sense as openness, and the full acceptance and appreciation of diversity: tolerance as the opposite of prejudice (Hjerm et al., 2021;Verkuyten et al., 2021). Much of the psychological and social science research on intergroup relations and many international policy documents consider modern tolerance, such as UNESCO's Declaration of principles on tolerance (1995), 20 CH A P T ER 1 outgroup prejudic...