<p>The tropics are characterized by a variety of atmospheric and oceanic systems dominated by multi-scale interaction processes. This is Part I of a two-part review study on climate and climate variability of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP). Here, the mean fields of incoming short wave radiation, surface energy fluxes, sea surface temperature, sea level pressure, salinity, wind patterns at 10m height, wind stress curl, precipitation, and evaporation are analyzed and synthetized using available data including that from the last decade. Given the strong interaction between the ETP and Caribbean Sea-Atlantic Ocean, mean field discussions are presented for two different domains, a relatively large domain from 24° S - 36° N and between 129° W - 17° W, and a smaller domain embedding only the Caribbean Sea and the easternmost part of the ETP. Most results on the climate of these two regions can be used as the base line for climate change studies. Interannual variability of tropical cyclones is also investigated over the domain of the latter two basins in the smaller domain. The study is complemented with a short review of some low frequency modes, such as, El Niño-Southern Oscillation, the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, and the Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation. Such low-frequency modes are known to modulate regional systems, including tropical cyclone frequency.</p><div> </div>

This is Part II of a two-part review about climate and climate variability focused on the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) and the Caribbean Sea (CS). Both parts are aimed at providing oceanographers, marine biologists, and other ocean scientists, a guiding base for ocean-atmosphere interaction processes affecting the CS, the ETP, and the waters of Isla del Coco. Isla del Coco National Park is a Costa Rican World Heritage site. Part I analyzed the mean fields for both basins and a larger region covering 25º S -35º N, 20º W -130º W. Here we focus on a smaller area (65º W -95º W, 0º -20º N), as a complement to Part 1. Incoming solar radiation and surface energy fluxes reveal the complex nature of the ETP and CS for convective activity and precipitation on seasonal and intraseasonal time scales. Both regions are relevant as sources of evaporation and the associated moisture transport processes. The American Monsoon System influences the climate and climate variability of the ETP and CS, however, the precise way systems affect regional precipitation and transport of moisture, within the Intra Americas Sea (IAS) are not clear. Although the Caribbean Low-Level Jet (CLLJ) is known to act as a conveyor belt for moisture transport, intraseasonal and seasonal modes of the CLLJ and their interactions with other IAS systems, have to be further investigated. Trans-isthmic jets, exert a variable seasonal wind stress force over the ocean surface co-generating regions of great marine productivity. Isolated convection, the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, the hurricane season, the Mid-Summer Drought, the seasonal and intraseasonal behavior of low-level jets and their interactions with transients, and the southward incursion of cold fronts contribute to regional seasonal precipitation. Many large-scale systems, such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation, the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation and the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO, also influence the variability of precipitation by modulating regional features associated with convection and precipitation. Monthly tropical storm (TS) activity in the CS and ETP basins is restricted to the period May-November, with very few cases in December. The CS presents TS peak activity during August, as well as for the number of hurricanes and major hurricanes, in contrast to the ETP that shows the same features during September. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (Suppl. 1): S23-S57. Epub 2016 Febrary 01.Key words: Cocos Island, Isla del Coco, seasonal and intraseasonal variability modes, Madden-Julian Oscillation, Caribbean Low-Level Jet, Chocó Jet, trans-isthmic low-level jets, atmospheric rivers.The Intra Americas Sea (IAS) is defined here as a region comprising the Gulf of Mexico (GM), the Caribbean Sea (CS), the Easternmost Tropical Pacific (ETP) and embedded continental areas. The dominant rain-producing systems of this tropical region are primarily convective in nature, however, their origin may be very broad. Convection may be the result of land and sea breeze processes, di...

Based on the potential of the weather types classification method to study synoptic features, this study proposes the application of such methodology for the identification of the main large scale patterns related with weather in Central America. Using ERA Interim low-level winds in a domain that encompasses the intra-Americas sea, the eastern tropical Pacific, southern North America, Central America and northern South America, the K-means clustering algorithm was applied to find recurrent regimes of low-level winds. Eleven regimes were identified and good coherency between the results and known features of regional circulation was found. It was determined that the main large scale patterns can be either locally forced or a response to tropical-extratropical interactions. Moreover, the local forcing dominates the summer regimes whereas mid latitude interactions lead to winter regimes. The study of the relationship between the large scale patterns and regional precipitation shows that winter regimes are related with the Caribbean-Pacific precipitation seesaw. Summer regimes, on the other hand, enhance the Caribbean-Pacific precipitation with contrasting distribution as a function of the dominant regimes. A strong influence of ENSO on the frequency and duration of the regimes was found. It was determined that the specific effect of ENSO on the regimes depends on whether the circulation is locally forced or lead by the interaction between the tropics and the mid-latitudes. The study of the cold surges using the information of the identified regimes revealed that three regimes are linkable with the occurrence of cold surges that affect Central America and its precipitation. As the winter regimes are largely dependent of mid-latitude interaction with the tropics, the effect that ENSO has on the Jet Stream is reflected in the winter regimes. An automated analysis of large scale conditions based on reanalysis and/or model data seems useful for both dynamical studies and as a tool to support forecasting. The application of the approach implemented in this study may be promising to improve current understanding on how large scale conditions affect regional weather.

The sensitivity of regional climate model simulations to domain size and position is becoming increasingly important for generating reliable climate scenarios. In this study, the Central America CORDEX domain (CCA) at 50 km horizontal resolution with a relaxation zone of 10° around the boundaries (CCA+) was taken as the basis to increase domain size in the RegCM4.4 model. The low-level circulation and precipitation patterns over Central America, the western Caribbean Sea, and the eastern tropical Pacific do not show strong sensitivity to domain size changes for an area increment of 18, 32, and 52% with respect to the size of CCA+. The physical configuration in RegCM4.4 has a greater impact on the representation of relevant climate characteristics and atmospheric processes. Simulated 925 hPa winds over the Caribbean low-level jet (CLLJ) region show unrealistic winter and summer intensities, especially in July. Similar issues were found in other studies for the CCA domain, using different models and physical configurations. A reduction of the critical Richardson number in the selected planetary boundary layer scheme resulted in little change in the strength of the summer component of the CLLJ. The model simulations do not completely capture key regional precipitation patterns such as the mid-summer drought, due to limitations in adequately representing low-level circulation. However, simulations using the Grell cumulus parameterization perform relatively better than those using a mixed scheme (Grell over land-Emanuel over ocean).