Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a common cause of morbidity among children in developed countries and accounts for an incidence of 10-40 cases per 1000 children in the first 5 years of life. Given the clinical, social and economic importance of CAP, there is general agreement that prompt and adequate therapy is essential to reduce the impact of the disease. The aim of this discussion paper is to consider critically the available data concerning the treatment of uncomplicated pediatric CAP and to consider when, how and for how long it should be treated. This review has identified the various reasons that make it difficult to establish a rational approach to the treatment of pediatric CAP, including the definition of CAP, the absence of a pediatric CAP severity score, the difficulty of identifying the etiology, limited pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) studies, the high resistance of the most frequent respiratory pathogens to the most widely used anti-infectious agents and the lack of information concerning the changes in CAP epidemiology following the introduction of new vaccines against respiratory pathogens. More research is clearly required in various areas, such as the etiology of CAP and the reasons for its complications, the better definition of first- and second-line antibiotic therapies (including the doses and duration of parenteral and oral antibiotic treatment), the role of antiviral treatment and on how to follow-up patients with CAP. Finally, further efforts are needed to increase vaccination coverage against respiratory pathogens and to conduct prospective studies of their impact.

Brown spot, caused by Bipolaris oryzae, is one of the most destructive diseases of rice. This study investigated some physiological and biochemical changes on rice leaves infected by B. oryzae. Rice plants (cv. "Oochikara") were grown for 35 days in hydroponic culture and inoculated with B. oryzae. Leaf samples were assessed for disease severity and also collected to determine lipid peroxidation (equivalents of malondialdehyde acid-MDA), electrolyte leakage (EL), and pigment concentrations. Gas exchange parameters were also evaluated. Brown spot severity increased over time, which was associated with increased MDA concentration and high EL. Chlorophyll (Chl) concentrations were significantly lower at 144 h after inoculation (hai) as compared to leaves from non-inoculated plants. At 144 hai, the concentration of total carotenoids (Car) was less than on 72 hai, and the Chl a+b/Car ratio was significantly lower on inoculated plants as compared to their noninoculated counterparts. Overall, chlorophylls were more affected by fungal infection than were carotenoids. The net carbon assimilation rate, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate were reduced by about 65% in plants at 144 hai as compared to non-inoculated plants, but the internal CO 2 concentration was unresponsive to infection. Changes in photosynthesis were largely related to both impaired light capture ability and decreased mesophyll capacity to fix CO 2 . It can be concluded that the infectious process of B. oryzae on rice affects the leaf physiology mainly through the damage to the cells, basically at membrane level.

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The prevalence of DM and impaired glucose tolerance was lower in this sample compared to the Brazilian population. However, the prevalence of obesity was higher, and that of hypertension was similar. Nutritional guidance and encouragement of physical activity are recommended in Jaguapiru as preventive measures for DM.