Tuberculosis remains a major killer worldwide, not the least because of our incomplete knowledge of protective and pathogenic immune mechanism. The roles of the interleukin 1 (IL-1) and interleukin 18 pathways in host defense are well established, as are their regulation through the inflammasome complex. In contrast, the regulation of interleukin 36γ (IL-36γ), a recently described member of the IL-1 family, and its immunological relevance in host defense remain largely unknown. Here we show that Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of macrophages induces IL-36γ production in a 2-stage-regulated fashion. In the first stage, microbial ligands trigger host Toll-like receptor and MyD88-dependent pathways, leading to IL-36γ secretion. In the second stage, endogenous IL-1β and interleukin 18 further amplify IL-36γ synthesis. The relevance of this cytokine in the control of M. tuberculosis is demonstrated by IL-36γ-induced antimicrobial peptides and IL-36 receptor-dependent restriction of M. tuberculosis growth. Thus, we provide first insight into the induction and regulation of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-36γ during tuberculosis.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is a life-threatening pathogen in humans. Bacterial infection of macrophages usually triggers strong innate immune mechanisms, including IL-1 cytokine secretion. The newer member of the IL-1 family, IL-36, was recently shown to be involved in cellular defense against Mtb. To unveil the underlying mechanism of IL-36 induced antibacterial activity, we analyzed its role in the regulation of cholesterol metabolism, together with the involvement of Liver X Receptor (LXR) in this process. We report that, in Mtb-infected macrophages, IL-36 signaling modulates cholesterol biosynthesis and efflux via LXR. Moreover, IL-36 induces the expression of cholesterol-converting enzymes and the accumulation of LXR ligands, such as oxysterols. Ultimately, both IL-36 and LXR signaling play a role in the regulation of antimicrobial peptides expression and in Mtb growth restriction. These data provide novel evidence for the importance of IL-36 and cholesterol metabolism mediated by LXR in cellular host defense against Mtb.