This paper presents key results from analysis of surface meteorological observations collected in the Northern Arabian/Persian Gulf (N Gulf; Kuwait, Bahrain, and NE Saudi Arabia), which spans a 40-years period . The first part of this study analyzes climate variability in the N Gulf, and relates them to teleconnection patterns (North Atlantic Oscillation, El Nino Southern Oscillation, and Indian Ocean Dipole). Results of the analysis indicate that during the study period the climate in the region experienced a general trend of increase in temperature (0.8 ∘ C), decrease in barometric pressure (1 mbar), reduction in humidity (6%), and decrease in visibility (9%). Significant correlations were found between the three teleconnection patterns and the meteorological conditions suggesting that seasonal variabilities in air temperature, barometric pressure, and precipitation are closely related to the teleconnection patterns. The second part of this study examines the 40-year variability of Shamal events (strong NW winds that commonly generate significant dust storms). The data suggests that on average Shamal events occur at a rate of 10 events year -1 with 85% of the events occurring during the summer and winter. The number of these events has increased in the past 14 years of the study period. These events resulted in abrupt changes in meteorological conditions: an increase in wind speed of 2.7 m s -1 , a decrease in visibility of 1.7 km, and reduction in humidity of 4.3%. Seasonal variations in temperature (an increase in temperature during summer of 0.8 ∘ C, and a decrease of 1.5 ∘ C during winter) and barometric pressure (a decrease in barometric pressure during summer of 0.6 mbar and an increase of 7.8 mbar during winter) were observed during Shamal events.

The air–sea heat fluxes in marginal seas and under extreme weather conditions constitute an essential source for energy transport and mixing dynamics. To reproduce these effects in numerical models, we need a better understanding of these fluxes. In response to this demand, we undertook a study to examine the surface heat fluxes in the Arabian Gulf (2013 to 2014) and Red Sea (2008 to 2010)—the two salty Indian Ocean marginal seas. We use high-quality buoy observations from offshore meteorological stations and data from two reanalysis products, the Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications version 2 (MERRA2) from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and ERA5, the fifth generation of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) atmospheric reanalyses of global climate. Comparison of the reanalyses with the in situ-derived fluxes shows that both products underestimate the net heat fluxes in the Gulf and the Red Sea, with biases up to −45 W/m 2 in MERRA2. The reanalyses reproduce relatively well the seasonal variability in the two regions and the effects of wind events on air–sea fluxes. The results suggest that when forcing numerical models, ERA5 might provide a preferable dataset of surface heat fluxes for the Arabian Gulf while for the Red Sea the MERRA2 seems preferable.

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Countries that border the Persian or Arabian Gulf (hereafter "Gulf") are adopting ambitious global commitments to protect their marine environments (1). The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has committed to protecting 30% of their lands and waters, with other Gulf states expected to soon join. Gulf countries will not meaningfully meet these and other global commitments (e.g., post-2020 biodiversity framework) without rebuilding trust, exchanging knowledge, and jump-starting conservation coordination across their maritime boundaries. Gulf scientists have an overlooked role in this work. The Gulf's political boundaries are crowded among Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, making the regional networking of marine protected areas Letter for Science (Policy Forum) -submitted May 24, 2022 3 (MPAs) critical to system-wide conservation success (2). During the summer, the Gulf is the world's hottest marine system, with many organisms living near their physiological limits (3,4).