We present a new investigation of the thermal history of the intergalactic medium (IGM) during and after reionization using the Lyman-α forest flux power spectrum at 4.0 z 5.2. Using a sample of 15 highresolution spectra, we measure the flux power down to the smallest scales ever probed at these redshifts (−1 log(k/km −1 s) −0.7). These scales are highly sensitive to both the instantaneous temperature of the IGM and the total energy injected per unit mass during and after reionization. We measure temperatures at the mean density of T 0 ∼ 7000-8000 K, consistent with no significant temperature evolution for redshifts 4.2 z 5.0. We also present the first observational constraints on the integrated IGM thermal history, finding that the total energy input per unit mass increases from u 0 ∼ 4.6 eV m −1 p to 7.3 eV m −1 p from z ∼ 6 to 4.2 assuming a Λ-CDM cosmology. We show how these results can be used simultaneously to obtain information on the timing and the sources of the reionization process. Our first proof of concept using simplistic models of instantaneous reionization produces results comparable to and consistent with the recent Planck constraints, favoring models with z rei ∼ 8.5 +1.1 −0.8 .

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) establish symbiotic interaction with 80% of known land plants. It has a pronounced impact on plant growth, water absorption, mineral nutrition, and protection from abiotic stresses. Plants are very dynamic systems having great adaptability under continuously changing drying conditions. In this regard, the function of AMF as a biological tool for improving plant drought stress tolerance and phenotypic plasticity, in terms of establishing mutualistic associations, seems an innovative approach towards sustainable agriculture. However, a better understanding of these complex interconnected signaling pathways and AMF-mediated mechanisms that regulate the drought tolerance in plants will enhance its potential application as an innovative approach in environmentally friendly agriculture. This paper reviews the underlying mechanisms that are confidently linked with plant–AMF interaction in alleviating drought stress, constructing emphasis on phytohormones and signaling molecules and their interaction with biochemical, and physiological processes to maintain the homeostasis of nutrient and water cycling and plant growth performance. Likewise, the paper will analyze how the AMF symbiosis helps the plant to overcome the deleterious effects of stress is also evaluated. Finally, we review how interactions between various signaling mechanisms governed by AMF symbiosis modulate different physiological responses to improve drought tolerance. Understanding the AMF-mediated mechanisms that are important for regulating the establishment of the mycorrhizal association and the plant protective responses towards unfavorable conditions will open new approaches to exploit AMF as a bioprotective tool against drought.

Previous studies have noted difficulties in modeling the highest opacities of the z > 5.5 Lyα forest, epitomized by the extreme Lyα trough observed towards quasar ULAS J0148+0600. One possibility is that the most opaque regions at these redshifts contain significant amounts of neutral hydrogen. This explanation, which abandons the common assumption that reionization ended before z = 6, also reconciles evidence from independent observations of a significantly neutral Universe at z = 7.5. Here we explore a model in which the neutral fraction is still ≈ 10% at z = 5.5. We confirm that this model can account for the observed scatter in Lyα forest opacities, as well as the observed Lyβ transmission in the J0148 trough. We contrast the model with a competing "earlier" reionization scenario characterized by a short mean free path and large fluctuations in the post-reionization ionizing background. We consider Lyα and Lyβ effective optical depths, their correlations, trough size distributions, dark pixel fractions, the IGM thermal history, and spatial distributions of Lyman-α emitters around forest sight lines. We find that the models are broadly similar in almost all of these statistics, suggesting that it may be difficult to distinguish between them definitively. We argue that improved constraints on the mean free path and the thermal history at z > 5 could go a long way towards diagnosing the origin of the z > 5.5 opacity fluctuations.