Provenance research of archaeological ocher contributes to understanding the capabilities of prehistoric humans to select, process, and treat suitable raw materials for symbolic and utilitarian purposes. The western part of the Lessini Mountains in the Veneto region of northeast Italy is an ideal location for this type of study as it features several different Fe-rich deposits, and many examples of archaeological ocher have been found in the nearby Fumane Cave and Tagliente Rockshelter Upper Paleolithic sites. Sourcing areas are often identified through the use of geochemical studies; however, microscopic techniques can also be used with the benefit of providing more detailed information about accessory minerals and textural characteristics of the material. One of the goals of our study was to demonstrate the potential in using polarizing light microscopy supported by scanning electron microscopy coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer in research of this type. We studied geological source samples and archaeological materials from the sites, the results of which are very promising in terms of shedding light on the sourcing of prehistoric ocher in this region.

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The use of red ochre for utilitarian, symbolic and artistic purposes is widely documented in prehistoric contexts. The absence of adequate red-coloured raw materials influenced the development of technological activities aimed at modifying the original physiochemical properties of yellow ochre. The heat treatment of goethite to obtain hematite was investigated in the western sector of the Lessini Mountains in north-east Italy, where red ochre was found in the (Proto)Aurignacian levels at Fumane cave and in the Late Epigravettian sequence at Tagliente rockshelter. The combination of X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) proved that heat treatment was a common practice in the studied archaeological sites due to the scarce availability of suitable hematite-based material in the region.

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A multi-instrumental approach combining highly sensitive Synchrotron Radiation-based techniques was used to provide information on the real composition of a dry black ink powder found in a bronze inkwell of the first century AD. The presence of Pb, Cu and Fe in the powder, revealed by XRF and ICP-OES data, leads to raise several hypotheses on their origin. The inkpot and its lid were also investigated by Hand-Held XRF, revealing a bronze alloy (Cu-Sn) with a certain amount of Fe and Pb. The lid was found to be particularly enriched in lead. XRPD, XAS and FTIR measurements showed a substantial presence of silicates and common clay minerals in the ink along with cerussite and malachite, Pb and Cu bearing-carbonates, respectively. These evidences support the hypothesis of an important contamination of the ink sample by the burial environment (soil) and the presence of degradation products of the bronze inkpot. The combined use of IR, Raman, and GC-MS evidenced that the black ink is mainly composed of amorphous carbon deriving from the combustion of organic material mixed with a natural binding agent, Arabic gum.