There has been a recent increase of research rigor and variety in measures of effectiveness in studies on the FC in medical education. The FC is a promising teaching approach to increase learners' motivation and engagement. More solid evidence on its effect on changes in knowledge and skills are warranted. Further studies should also examine the long-term effects of FCs with regard to knowledge retention and transfer of knowledge to professional practice and patient care.

This review synthesizes the findings of studies of the use of rubrics in education settings published from 2005 to 2013. The review included studies only if the rubrics involved met the definition of having coherent sets of criteria and performance level descriptions for those criteria. Compared to the results of a previous review by Jonsson and Svingby (Educational Research Review 2(2): [130][131][132][133][134][135][136][137][138][139][140][141][142][143][144] 2007), the frequency, scope, and rigor of studies of rubrics have increased in recent years. Rubrics yield information of sufficient quality if certain conditions are met, most notably having clear and focused criteria. Evidence regarding the effects of rubrics on performance is positive overall. Evidence of the effects of rubrics on self-regulation of learning is mixed, though positive associations between rubric use and motivation to learn were identified in some studies. IntroductionA rubric is a coherent set of criteria for students' work that includes descriptions of levels of performance quality on the criteria (Brookhart 2013b). Rubrics by this definition differ from rating scales, which have criteria but no performance level descriptions, although in common parlance these are often called "rubrics". Several important purposes claimed for rubrics, that they facilitate student self-assessment, facilitate teacher and peer feedback, and help students envision what to do to improve their work, only make sense if both criteria and performance level descriptions are present (Andrade 2000; Jonsson and Svingby 2007). The purpose of this article is to document what is known about (1) the quality of assessment information from rubrics and (2) the effects of rubric use on student learning and motivation to learn, using the method of a literature review. Rubric use in educational settingsRubrics enjoy wide use in primary, secondary, and post-secondary education. They arose as part of a response to research in the 1980s suggesting that students were better at repeating facts and concepts than applying them, and the consequent interest in performance assessment (Lane and Tierney 2008) and standards-based reform (Brookhart 2013a). Performance assessment can reflect students' abilities to solve real-world problems, analyze and synthesize information, and apply their knowledge and skills only if they have carefully designed scoring procedures with clear criteria. Rubrics with criteria and performance level descriptions are deemed an effective vehicle for organizing and communicating criteria and performance expectations and for use in scoring and/or providing feedback on student work (Lane and Tierney 2008).Beginning in the 1990s, two other developments have bolstered the use of rubrics: increasing emphasis on formative assessment in education at all levels (Andrade and Cizek 2010) and increasing emphasis on assessment and evaluation in the accreditation process in post-secondary education (Gerretson and Golson 2005; Kerby and Romine 2010). Formative assessment an...

Student self-assessment is a central component of current conceptions of formative and classroom assessment. The research on self-assessment has focused on its efficacy in promoting both academic achievement and self-regulated learning, with little concern for issues of validity.Because reliability of testing is considered a sine qua non for the validity of assessment interpretations, and research into the human ability to self-evaluate work raises concerns about the quality of students' judgments, it is sensible to investigate the accuracy of students' selfassessments. This article reviews relevant literature from educational psychology and psychometrics to define the need for a better understanding of accuracy in self-assessment as well as to identify possible pitfalls in measuring accuracy that could undermine its effectiveness by, for example, trading the focus on formative feedback for summative scoring or rating. The article concludes with recommendations for the design of research on accuracy in selfassessment.