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Research on the enabling factors of innovation has focused on either the social component of organizations or on the spatial dimensions involved in the innovation process. But no one has examined the aggregate consequences of the link from spatial layout, to social networks, to innovation. This project enriches our understanding of how innovation works especially in highly innovative organizations by exploring the social dimensions of innovation as they are embedded in a specific spatial milieu. Workspace layout generates spatial boundaries that divide and reunite built space. These boundaries create relations of accessibility and visibility that integrate or segregate behaviors, activities, and people. As built space structures patterns of circulation, copresence, coawareness, and encounter in an organization, these interrelationships become fundamental to the development of social networks, especially those networks critical to the innovation process. This article presents a review of the knowledge bases of social network and spatial layout theories, and reports on a preliminary study of the effects of spatial layout on the formation and maintenance of social network structure and the support of innovation.

Introduction Medical error is the third leading cause of death in the United States, contributing to suboptimal care, serious patient injury, and mortality among beneficiaries in the Military Health System. Recent media reports have scrutinized the safety and quality of military healthcare, including surgical complications, infection rates, clinician competence, and a reluctance of leaders to investigate operational processes. Military leaders have aggressively committed to a continuous cycle of process improvement and a culture of safety with the goal to transform the Military Health System into a high-reliability organization. The cornerstone of patient safety is effective clinician communication. Military surgical teams are particularly susceptible to communication error because of potential barriers created by military rank, clinical specialty, and military culture. With an operations tempo requiring the military to continually deploy small, agile surgical teams, effective interpersonal communication among these team members is vital to providing life-saving care on the battlefield. Methods The purpose of our exploratory, prospective, cross-sectional study was to examine the association between social distance and interpersonal communication in a military surgical setting. Using social network analysis to map the relationships and structure of interpersonal relations, we developed six networks (interaction frequency, close working relationship, socialization, advice-seeking, advice-giving, and speaking-up/voice) and two models that represented communication effectiveness ratings for each participant. We used the geodesic or network distance as a predictor of team member network position and assessed the relationship of distance to pairwise communication effectiveness with permutation-based quadratic assignment procedures. We hypothesized that the shorter the network geodesic distance between two individuals, the smaller the difference between their communication effectiveness. Results We administered a network survey to 50 surgical teams comprised of 45 multidisciplinary clinicians with 522 dyadic relationships. There were significant and positive correlations between differences in communication effectiveness and geodesic distances across all five networks for both general (r = 0.819–0.894, P < 0.001 for all correlations) and task-specific (r = 0.729–0.834, P < 0.001 for all correlations) communication. This suggests that a closer network ties between individuals is associated with smaller differences in communication effectiveness. In the quadratic assignment procedures regression model, geodesic distance predicted task-specific communication (β = 0.056–0.163, P < 0.001 for all networks). Interaction frequency, socialization, and advice-giving had the largest effect on task-specific communication difference. We did not uncover authority gradients that affect speaking-up patterns among surgical clinicians. Conclusions The findings have important implications for safety and quality. Stronger connections in the interaction frequency, close working relationship, socialization, and advice networks were associated with smaller differences in communication effectiveness. The ability of team members to communicate clinical information effectively is essential to building a culture of safety and is vital to progress towards high-reliability. The military faces distinct communication challenges because of policies to rotate personnel, the presence of a clear rank structure, and antifraternization regulations. Despite these challenges, overall communication effectiveness in military teams will likely improve by maintaining team consistency, fostering team cohesion, and allowing for frequent interaction both inside and outside of the work environment.

Spatial layouts can significantly influence the formation and outcomes of social relationships. Physical proximity is thus essential to understanding the elemental building blocks of social networks, dyads. Situating relationships in space is instrumental to formulating better models of collaboration and information sharing in organizations and more robust theories of networks and their effects. We propose, develop, and test a concept, the functional zone, which effectively captures Festinger et al.’s classic description of “functional distance” as it pertains to social interactions. We operationalize functional zone with measures of path and areal zone overlap. At two biomedical research buildings with different layouts (compact versus linear), regression analyses of collaboration rates show that increasing path overlap increases collaboration. More traditional distance measures influence collaboration only in the more linear building. The functional zone concept improves our ability to understand relationships and their attendant organizational outcomes.

Research on the enabling factors of innovation has most often addressed either the social component of organizations or the spatial dimensions involved in the innovation process. Few studies have examined the link from spatial layout and social networks to innovation. Social networks play important roles in structuring communication, collaboration, access to knowledge, and knowledge transformation. These processes are both antecedent to and part of the innovation process. Spatial layout structures patterns of circulation, proximity, awareness of others, and encounter in an organization. These interrelationships become fundamental to the development of social networks, especially those networks critical to the innovation process. This research explored associations between innovation within three partner organizations and the organization's social and spatial structure. The organizations included: A nonprofit life sciences institute dedicated to translational research on cancer, the research laboratories of a multinational software corporation, and the quality control group of an automobile manufacturer. The study applied spatial analysis to map and characterize physical space in conjunction with survey data capturing social contacts among researchers at the three organizations. For one partner organization, we augmented these tools with location-tracking methods. It could be argued that sociometric surveys capture the ‘perceived’ social network. Social networks researchers have been very interested in assessing ‘real’ networks either as reliability checks on sociometric survey networks, or as stand-alone networks. Our use of an ultrawideband location system allowed us to assess networks in real time. In interpreting our results, we suggest that through exposure to moving others, locations with high metric choice may provide the opportunities for serendipitous encounters among individuals who may come from disparate parts of an organization. Whereas low mean distance to others may provide the enhanced connections necessary to mobilize the resources and attention to move innovative ideas forward. Results demonstrate the salience of both social and spatial dimensions in the processes of innovation. The research suggests two strong factors that appear to influence our results: the institutional context which characterizes or prioritizes certain innovation outcomes; the extent to which the physical facility design of organizations tends to concentrate or spatially distribute the research unit. Our findings indicate that relationships between salutary network positions and beneficial locales themselves derive from institutional contexts that shape the priorities, opportunities, goals and practices of discovery. We suggest that innovation is a process that occurs at the intersection of social and physical space, and moves toward a sociospatial science of design for innovation.