This study reports avian malaria caused by Plasmodium relictum in Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) from São Paulo Zoo. The disease was highly infective among the birds and was clinically characterized by its acute course and high mortality. The penguins of São Paulo Zoo were housed for at least 2 years without malaria; however, they had always been maintained in an enclosure protected from mosquito exposure during the night period. When they presented pododermatitis, they were freed at night for a short period. São Paulo Zoo is located in one of the last forest remnants of the city, an area of original Atlantic forest. In the winter, the space destined for Zoo birds is shared with migratory species. Hence the possibility exists that the disease was transmitted to the penguins by mosquitoes that had previously bitten infected wild birds. Avian malaria parasites are transmitted mainly by mosquitoes of the genera Aedes and Culex, common vectors in the Atlantic forest. In this study, one Culex (Cux.) sp. was found, infected with P. relictum. There are diverse problems in housing distinct species of animals in captivity, principally when occupying the same enclosure, since it facilitates the transmission of diseases with indirect cycles, as is the case of Plasmodium spp., because certain species that cause discrete infections in some bird species can become a serious danger for others, especially penguins, which do not possess natural resistance. Thus, serious implications exist for periodically testing and administrating malaria therapy in captive penguins potentially exposed to mosquitoes during the night period, as well as other captive birds from São Paulo Zoo.

BackgroundThe role of zoos in conservation programmes has increased significantly in last decades, and the health of captive animals is essential to guarantee success of such programmes. However, zoo birds suffer from parasitic infections, which often are caused by malaria parasites and related haemosporidians. Studies determining the occurrence and diversity of these parasites, aiming better understanding infection influence on fitness of captive birds, are limited.MethodsIn 2011–2015, the prevalence and diversity of Plasmodium spp. and Haemoproteus spp. was examined in blood samples of 677 captive birds from the São Paulo Zoo, the largest zoo in Latin America. Molecular and microscopic diagnostic methods were used in parallel to detect and identify these infections.ResultsThe overall prevalence of haemosporidians was 12.6%. Parasites were mostly detected by the molecular diagnosis, indicating that many birds harbour subclinical or abortive infections. In this project, birds of 17 orders (almost half of all the orders currently accepted in taxonomy of birds), 29 families, and 122 species, were tested, detecting positive individuals in 27% of bird species. Birds from the Anatidae were the most prevalently infected (64.7% of all infected animals). In all, infections with parasites of the genus Plasmodium (overall prevalence 97.6%) predominated when compared to those of the genus Haemoproteus (2.4%). In total, 14 cytochrome b (cytb) lineages of Plasmodium spp. and 2 cytb lineages of Haemoproteus spp. were recorded. Eight lineages were new. One of the reported lineages was broad generalist while others were reported in single or a few species of birds. Molecular characterization of Haemoproteus ortalidum was developed.ConclusionThis study shows that many species of birds are at risk in captivity. It is difficult to stop haemosporidian parasite transmission in zoos, but is possible to reduce the infection rate by treating the infected animals or/and while keeping them in facilities free from mosquitoes. Protocols of quarantine should be implemented whenever an animal is transferred between bird maintaining institutions. This is the first survey of haemosporidians in captive birds from different orders maintained in zoos. It is worth emphasizing the necessity of applying practices to control these parasites in management and husbandry of animals in captivity.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12936-017-1729-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Numerous studies addressed the diversity of bird Plasmodium and Haemoproteus parasites. However, a few have been carried out in continental avian hotspot regions such as Brazil, a country with markedly different biomes, including Amazon, Brazilian Savanna, Atlantic Forest, Caatinga, Pantanal, and Pampas. We present the first study on hemosporidian (Haemosporida) parasites in free-living birds from an Atlantic Forest fragment where more than 80 avian species have been reported. Within this area, the São Paulo Zoo locates, and it is the fourth largest zoo in the world and the largest in Latin America. A total of 133 free-living bird samples representing 12 species were collected in the zoo, with the overall hemosporidian prevalence of 18 % by PCR-based diagnostics. Twenty-four positive PCR signals were reported from four different bird species, including migratory ones. Columba livia, an urban species, considered nowadays a pest in big cities, showed 100 % prevalence of Haemoproteus spp., mainly Haemoproteus columbae. We discuss the epidemiological importance of new parasites introduced by migratory birds in the São Paulo Zoo area and the risk it poses to the captive species, which are natives or exotics. We also warn about the influence these parasites can have on the biodiversity and the structure of host populations by altering the competitive interaction between the free-living and the captive birds.

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Ramphastidae is Family of secondary cavity-nesting birds that is endemic to the Neotropical region. Here we provide a comprehensive literature review of nest measurements, and new information on characteristics of the nest cavity, parental nest attendance, incubation and nestling period of the Red-breasted Toucan, Ramphastos dicolorus. We also add information on the origin of the seeds found inside toucan nests and propose a potential function for them. Eight nests were studied in three cavities during six breeding seasons at Parque Estadual das Fontes do Ipiranga, São Paulo, and at a private allotment in Ibiúna, southeastern Brazil. The reproductive activities of the birds were observed from September to February. In one cavity, we found the first record of a Meliponini bee hive (Scaptotrigona bipunctata) co-existing with a toucan nest. At the beginning of the nesting season, the parents regurgitate seeds on the floor of the cavity, covering it with them. This preparation plays a role in nest sanitation, once the seeds act as a substrate for the feces facilitating the process of carrying them off the nest by the female. The incubation and nestling periods lasted 17.2 ± 1.2 and 43 ± 5.4 days, respectively, and both parents shared egg incubation, nestling, brooding and provisioning, but only the female performed nest sanitation. This differs from published observations on other species of the group, suggesting that the participation of each sex in nest attendance may not be the same for all ramphastids. Additionally, our observations suggest that selecting anthropic locations for nesting can negatively influence toucan nest success. Informações adicionais sobre o comportamento reprodutivo do tucano-de-bico-verde,Ramphastos dicolorus (Aves: Piciformes: Ramphastidae) Resumo: Ramphastidae compreende uma Família de aves que nidificam em cavidades, são endêmicas da região Neotropical, mas possuem os aspectos relacionados à sua biologia reprodutiva ainda pouco conhecidos. No presente estudo, nós fornecemos uma revisão detalhada da literatura acerca de medidas de ninhos, características das cavidades, cuidado parental e períodos de incubação e permanência do tucano-de-bico-verde Ramphastos dicolorus. Nós também descrevemos e propomos uma possível função para as sementes encontradas dentro dos ninhos dessa espécie. Foram estudados oito ninhos, em três diferentes cavidades durante seis temporadas reprodutivas no Parque Estadual das Fontes do Ipiranga, São Paulo, e em um loteamento particular em Ibiúna, ambos no sudeste do Brasil. As atividades reprodutivas foram observadas de Setembro a Fevereiro. Em uma das cavidades foi registrada a coexistência entre uma colmeia de abelhas Meliponini Scaptotrigona bipunctata e um ninho de tucanos, sendo este o primeiro registro desse tipo de interação para Ramphastidae. No início do período de nidificação os parentais regurgitavam sementes no fundo da cavidade, cobrindo-o, e nossas observações mostram que essa preparação desempenha o papel de facilitar na limpeza do ninho, uma vez que a...