Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer with an increasing worldwide mortality rate. Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is the second most common primary liver cancer. In both types of cancers, early detection is very important. Biomarkers are a relevant part of diagnosis, enabling non-invasive detection and control of cancer recurrence, as well as in the application of screening tests in high-risk groups. Furthermore, some of these biomarkers are useful in controlling therapy and treatment selection. Detection of some markers presents higher sensitivity and specificity in combination with other markers when compared with a single detection. Some gene aberrations are also prognostic markers in the two types of cancers. In the following review, we discuss the most common biomarkers and genetic markers currently being used in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma.

Aluminium (Al) is the most ubiquitous metal in the Earth’s crust. Even though its toxicity is well-documented, the role of Al in the pathogenesis of several neurological diseases remains debatable. To establish the basic framework for future studies, we review literature reports on Al toxicokinetics and its role in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), alcohol use disorder (AUD), multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and dialysis encephalopathy (DE) from 1976 to 2022. Despite poor absorption via mucosa, the biggest amount of Al comes with food, drinking water, and inhalation. Vaccines introduce negligible amounts of Al, while the data on skin absorption (which might be linked with carcinogenesis) is limited and requires further investigation. In the above-mentioned diseases, the literature shows excessive Al accumulation in the central nervous system (AD, AUD, MS, PD, DE) and epidemiological links between greater Al exposition and their increased prevalence (AD, PD, DE). Moreover, the literature suggests that Al has the potential as a marker of disease (AD, PD) and beneficial results of Al chelator use (such as cognitive improvement in AD, AUD, MS, and DE cases).

One of the most common nerve palsies – common fibular nerve palsy – can be caused by the variant small sesamoid bone in the posterolateral compartment of the knee joint known as the fabella. We compared and reviewed all reported cases of common fibular nerve palsy due to fabellae in the English literature. Compression can develop spontaneously or post‐surgically (total knee arthroplasty). Symptoms progress rapidly to complete foot drop. Among all the cases reviewed, 68.42% were males with a median age of 39.39 years. Fabella compression was more common in the left common fibular nerve (CFN) (63.16%). Both big (23 × 20 × 16 mm) and small (5 × 5 mm) fabellae can be responsible for compression. While diagnosis can be problematic, the treatment (either surgical fabellectomy or conservative) is relatively easy and brings quick improvement.

Introduction: Overtraining syndrome (OTS) is a state of excess sportsmen's overload caused by too high an intensity of training. The main cause of OTS is too big a training load. Also, they are other risk factors like restrictive diets, inordinate stress, and inflated expectations of a family and a coach. Description of the state of knowledge: despite numerous hypotheses like dysregulation of hypothalamus and pituitary, inflammatory hypothesis, and glycogen hypothesis the exact cause of OTS is not fully understood. None of these hypotheses explains completely all of the symptoms. In diagnosis, several laboratory tests are required to exclude other diseases. After it, because of possible systemic character diagnostic process of OTS is still problematic. One of the diagnostic methods relies on the measurement of hormone levels. Another potential diagnostic method is the measurement of saliva immunoglobulins and other anti-viral proteins. Also, the measurement of serum cell-free DNA can be used. After the onset of OTS, the most important treatment method is rest, which should last for 6-12 weeks or longer. Nowadays, treatment options are looking for shortenings this time. These options are anti-inflammatory drugs and repeated hypoxia-hyperoxia exposure combined with low-intensity training. Since the only well-established treatment method is prolonged rest, prevention is the most important aspect of OTS management. Adequate education of young athletes and their parents is also important. Summary: Overtraining syndrome is a serious problem that concerns many athletes. This problem not only affects results and careers but also sportsmen’s life. Because of the wide scope of symptoms, which can be often nonspecific making the correct diagnosis can be difficult.