The ''capacitive mixing'' (CAPMIX) technique is aimed at the extraction of energy from the salinity difference between the sea and rivers. It is based on the voltage rise that takes place at the electrodes when changing the salt concentration of the solution in which the two electrodes are dipped. In this paper, we focus on activated carbon electrodes, produced with various methods and treatments, and we measure their behaviour in CAPMIX experiments. We find that they behave as polarizable electrodes only on time scales of the order of minutes, while on longer time scales they tend to move to a specific ''spontaneous'' potential, likely due to chemical redox reactions. This analysis sheds light on the charge leakage, i.e. the loss of the stored charge due to undesired chemical reactions, which is one of the main hurdles of the CAPMIX technique when performed with activated carbon electrodes. We show that the leakage finds its origin in the tendency of the electrode to move to its spontaneous potential. Our investigation allows us to completely get rid of the leakage and demonstrates the striking result that CAPMIX cycles can be performed without an external power supply.

It is now generally accepted that even low amounts of quenched disorder disrupt long-range order in anisotropic systems with continuous symmetry. However, very little is known on the key item of the nature of the residual order, if any, and particularly if this has quasi-long-range or truly-short-range character. Here we address this problem both experimentally for the nematic 6CB in dilute aerosils and with computer simulations. We find that the residual order is short ranged and scales with disorder density in agreement with the Imry-Ma argument.

We discuss the translocation of inhaled asbestos fibers based on pulmonary and pleuro-pulmonary interstitial fluid dynamics. Fibers can pass the alveolar barrier and reach the lung interstitium via the paracellular route down a mass water flow due to combined osmotic (active Na + absorption) and hydraulic (interstitial pressure is subatmospheric) pressure gradient. Fibers can be dragged from the lung interstitium by pulmonary lymph flow (primary translocation) wherefrom they can reach the blood stream and subsequently distribute to the whole body (secondary translocation). Primary translocation across the visceral pleura and towards pulmonary capillaries may also occur if the asbestos-induced lung inflammation increases pulmonary interstitial pressure so as to reverse the trans-mesothelial and trans-endothelial pressure gradients. Secondary translocation to the pleural space may occur via the physiological route of pleural fluid formation across the parietal pleura; fibers accumulation in parietal pleura stomata (black spots) reflects the role of parietal lymphatics in draining pleural fluid. Asbestos fibers are found in all organs of subjects either occupationally exposed or not exposed to asbestos. Fibers concentration correlates with specific conditions of interstitial fluid dynamics, in line with the notion that in all organs microvascular filtration occurs from capillaries to the extravascular spaces. Concentration is high in the kidney (reflecting high perfusion pressure and flow) and in the liver (reflecting high microvascular permeability) while it is relatively low in the brain (due to low permeability of blood-brain barrier). Ultrafine fibers (length < 5 µm, diameter < 0.25 µm) can travel larger distances due to low steric hindrance (in mesothelioma about 90% of fibers are ultrafine). Fibers translocation is a slow process developing over decades of life: it is aided by high biopersistence, by inflammation-induced increase in permeability, by low steric hindrance and by fibers motion pattern at low Reynolds numbers; it is hindered by fibrosis that increases interstitial flow resistances.

An enormous dissipation of the order of 2 kJ/L takes place during the natural mixing process of fresh river water entering the salty sea. "Capacitive mixing" is a promising technique to efficiently harvest this energy in an environmentally clean and sustainable fashion. This method has its roots in the ability to store a very large amount of electric charge inside supercapacitor or battery electrodes dipped in a saline solution. Three different schemes have been studied so far, namely, Capacitive Double Layer Expansion (CDLE), Capacitive Donnan Potential (CDP) and Mixing Entropy Battery (MEB), respectively based on the variation upon salinity change of the electric double layer capacity, on the Donnan membrane potential, and on the electrochemical energy of intercalated ions.

Electrochemical cells containing two electrodes dipped in an ionic solution are widely used as charge accumulators, either with polarizable (supercapacitor) or nonpolarizable (battery) electrodes. Recent applications include desalination ("capacitive deionization") and energy extraction from salinity differences ("capacitive mixing"). In this Letter, we analyze a general relation between the variation of the electric potential as a function of the concentration and the salt adsorption. This relation comes from the evaluation of the electrical and mechanical energy exchange along a reversible cycle, which involves salt adsorption and release by the electrodes. The obtained relation thus describes a connection between capacitive deionization and capacitive mixing. We check this relation with experimental data already reported in the literature, and moreover by some classical physical models for electrodes, including polarizable and nonpolarizable electrodes. The generality of the relation makes it very useful in the study of the properties of the electric double layer.