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This article examines the complex relations between spatial planning and its cultural context (including the specific socio-economic patterns and related cultural norms, values, traditions and attitudes). To be able to analyze the extent to which spatial planning adapts to external pressures such as Europeanization, a "culturized planning model" with the three dimensions "planning artefacts", "planning environment" and "societal environment" is used. It can be observed that the "harmonization" of spatial planning practices can result from external pressures such as EU regulations as well as (horizontal) collective learning processes. However, "harmonization" does not necessarily result in convergence. Adaptational pressures such as Europeanization often result in the customization of existing structures, frames and policies ("planning artefacts" and "planning environment") but do not fundamentally change the underlying core cultural traits ("societal environment"). These cultural traits are quite resistant to change and help maintain a diversity of planning cultures and policies in Europe.

This paper recognises the need to study the complex relations between spatial planning and cultural contexts in a more comprehensive way. The objective is to contribute to a theoretical basis and conceptual framework for a systematic analysis of spatial planning, that is, planning practices related to a cultural and social context, on the basis of a complex system of criteria. This may contribute to achieving a better understanding of the complex relationships between the cultural context-including the specific socioeconomic patterns and related cultural norms, values, traditions, and attitudes-and spatial planning as an operative instrument of territorial policy by introducing the term 'planning culture'. Therefore, as culture is subtle and complex in nature and is based on fluid concepts, theoretical approaches of cultural change are also introduced to provide a more dynamic conception of planning cultures to analyse and understand recent changes in spatial planning.

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We are grateful to two anonymous reviewers for constructive critique and detailed suggestions, which helped us streamline and strengthen our arguments. Simone Tulumello is funded by the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (DL57/2016/CP1441/CT0007).