Summary. The aim of the present study was to explain the relationship between expectancy and subsequent academic achievement. A modified version of effort calculation theory was used to generate hypotheses regarding determinants and effects of expectancy in the academic achievement situation. The hypothesis that past achievement, work spent in examination preparations, and perceived ability determine both expectancy and later examination performance, and thereby account for the relationship between the latter two variables, did not find support. With preparation work, past grades, and perceived ability controlled, expectancy still related to subsequent grades. The hypothesis that expectancy determines effort expenditure in the examination situation, and thereby grades, was also not supported. It was suggested that expectancy as an expression of self‐confidence might be more strongly related to style of working in an exam situation than to an energy dimension like effort expenditure.

It has recently been claimed by several authors that all behaviour is causally determined by unconscious mechanisms, and not under our conscious control. What this amounts to is that none of our everyday behaviour can be regarded as intentional, as action. The aim of the present paper is to discuss the evidence on which this claim is based. The conclusion is that though numerous psychological phenomena (like perception, memory, feeling, mood, mannerisms and automatisms) have unconscious determinants, the data do not show that everyday behaviours like talking, writing, working and moving one's body are outside our conscious control.

The aim of the present study is to evaluate the postmodern belief that selves are narrative constructions. Four theories, varying in degree of anti‐realism, are presented and discussed. It is concluded that an attractive feature of the narrative approach is that it explains how we achieve a sense of unity. But the main idea, that selves are constituted or created by stories is problematic, like identifying footprints on the beach with the feet that made them.

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