Aim To examine the optimal range of International Normalized Ratio (INR) for Chinese patients receiving warfarin for moderate‐intensity anticoagulation. Methods This was a retrospective cohort study conducted at the ambulatory setting of a 1400‐bed public teaching hospital in Hong Kong. The INR measurements and occurrence of serious or life‐threatening haemorrhagic and thromboembolic events among patients newly started on warfarin from 1 January 1999 to 30 June 2001 for indications with target INR 2–3 were analysed. The INR‐specific incidence of bleeding and thromboembolism were calculated. Results A total of 491 patients were included, contributing to 453 patient‐years of observation period. Forty‐seven of the 491 patients experienced 25 haemorrhagic events (5.5 per 100 patient‐years) and 27 thromboembolic events (6.0 per 100 patient‐years). The percentage of patient‐time spent within therapeutic INR range (2–3), INR <2 and INR >3 were 50, 44 and 6%, respectively. The incidence of either haemorrhagic or thromboembolic events was lowest (≤4 events per 100 patient‐years) at INR values between 1.8 and 2.4. Conclusions An INR of 1.8–2.4 appeared to be associated with the lowest incidence rate of major bleeding or thromboembolic events in a cohort of Hong Kong Chinese patients receiving warfarin therapy for moderate‐intensity anticoagulation.

AimTo compare the treatment outcomes of a clinical pharmacist-managed anticoagulation service with physician-managed service in Chinese patients. MethodsA prospective, randomized clinical trial was conducted at the anticoagulation clinic of a teaching hospital in Hong Kong. Patients aged ≥ 18 years who would required warfarin therapy for at least 3 months were recruited. Patients were randomized to the pharmacist-managed or physician-managed group. Primary clinical outcome was assessed by the percentage of patient time spent within the target international normalized ratio (INR) range. The incidence of major thromboembolic events (TEs) and major bleeding was assessed as secondary clinical outcomes. The cost per patient per month (cPPPM) was calculated and patient satisfaction was assessed by patient satisfaction questionnaire (PSQ)-18. ResultsOne hundred and forty-one patients were recruited at the anticoagulation clinic and 137 patients completed the study. Patients in the pharmacist-managed group ( n = 68) were in the target INR 64% of patient time vs. 59% in the physicianmanaged group ( n = 69) ( P < 0.001). There was no significant difference in incidence of major TEs or bleeding. The cPPPM in the pharmacist-managed group (US$76 ± 95) (£43 ± 53) was lower than in the physician-managed group (US$98 ± 158) (£55 ± 89) ( P < 0.001). The PSQ-18 score of the pharmacist-managed group (3.8 ± 0.2) was higher than that of the physician-managed group (3.6 ± 0.3) ( P < 0.001). ConclusionThe pharmacist-managed anticoagulation service was more effective and less costly than the physician-managed service in achieving target anticoagulation control for Chinese patients on warfarin therapy.

Variant cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C9 genotypes are associated with low maintenance dose requirement of warfarin therapy and increased risk of major bleeding events. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the potential clinical and economic outcomes of using CYP2C9 genotype data to guide the management of anticoagulation therapy and to identify influential factors affecting the cost-effectiveness of this treatment scheme. A decision tree was designed to simulate, over 12 months, the clinical and economic outcomes of patients newly started on warfarin associated with two alternatives: (1) no genotyping (non-genotyped group) and (2) CYP2C9 genotyping prior to initiation of warfarin therapy (genotyped group). Non-genotyped group patients would receive standard care of an anticoagulation clinic (AC). In the genotyped group, patients with at least one variant CYP2C9 allele would receive intensified anticoagulation service. Most of the clinical probabilities were derived from literature. The direct medical costs were estimated from the Diagnosis-Related Group charges and from literature. The total number of events and the direct medical cost per 100 patient-years in the genotyped and non-geno-typed groups were 9.58 and USD155,700, and, 10.48 and USD 150,500, respectively. The marginal cost per additional major bleeding averted in the genotyped group was USD 5,778. The model was sensitive to the variation of the cost and reduction of bleeding rate in the intensified anticoagulation service. In conclusion, the pharmacogenetics-oriented management of warfarin therapy is potentially more effective in preventing bleeding with a marginal cost. The cost-effectiveness of this treatment scheme depends on the relative cost and effectiveness of a pharmacogenetics-oriented intensified anticoagulation service comparing to the standard AC care.

Background : Entecavir is a new antiviral agent for chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection with potent HBV suppression and a low rate of viral resistance. Objective : To review published studies on the pharmacoeconomics of entecavir for treatment of chronic HBV. Methods : A literature search on Medline and Embase over the period of 1998 -2008 was performed in April 2008 using keywords 'entecavir' and 'cost'. Results/conclusion : Four studies comparing the cost effectiveness of entecavir with lamivudine and/or adefovir for treatment with chronic HBV infection using either decision tree or Markov modeling were reviewed. All four studies showed that entecavir was cost-effective in the treatment of chronic HBV with the incremental cost per QALY (quality-adjusted life-year) gained below the commonly accepted benchmark. The results are mainly due to the lower complication rates and better quality of life of patients using entecavir which can offset the higher acquisition cost of the drug. Patient characteristics, comparing agents and model assumptions were different among the four studies and they should be taken into account when applying the results to real life situations.

Allocation of additional resources for establishing or expanding anticoagulation clinic (AC) services is a significant concern for healthcare decision-makers when the payer is also the provider of the healthcare system. The majority of anticoagulated patients in Hong Kong are managed by routine medical care (RMC) instead of ACs, possibly due to the lack of local cost-effectiveness analysis of the AC setting. The aim was to compare the clinical and economic outcomes of anticoagulated patients who were managed by AC or RMC from the perspective of a public health organization in Hong Kong. A Markov model was designed to simulate, over 10 years, the economic and clinical outcomes of patients receiving chronic warfarin therapy managed by AC or RMC. The transition probabilities were derived from literature. Resource utilization was retrieved from patients managed by AC and RMC in Hong Kong. Sensitivity analysis was conducted to examine the robustness of the model. The total number of events per 100 patient-years and the direct medical cost per patient-year in the AC and RMC groups were 9.5 and USD 840, and, 19.3 and USD 1,179, respectively. The results of the model were sensitive to the variation of the probability of major bleeding in the AC group. In conclusion, the coordinated care provided by an anticoagulation clinic appears to be more cost-effective than routine medical care in the management of warfarin therapy from the perspective of public health organization in Hong Kong.