Background: The use of accelerometers in bio-logging devices has proved to be a powerful tool for the quantification of animal behaviour. While bio-logging techniques are being used on wide range of species, to date they have only been seldom used with non-human primates. This is likely due to three main factors: the long tradition of direct field observations, a difficulty of attaching bio-logging devices to wild primates and the challenge of deciphering acceleration signals in species' with remarkable locomotor and behavioural diversity. Here, we overcome these aforementioned obstacles and provide methodology for identification of behaviours from accelerometer data of wild chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) in Cape Town, South Africa. Results:We apply machine learning techniques to process complex accelerometer data, collected by bespoke tracking collars to quantify a range of behaviours (focusing on locomotion and foraging behaviour). We successfully identify six broad state behaviours that represent 93.3% of the time budget of the baboons. Resting, walking, running and foraging were all identified with high recall and precision representing the first classification of multiple behavioural states from accelerometer data for a wild primate. Conclusion:Our 'end to end' process-from collar design and build to the collection and quantification of acceleration data-provides advantages over gathering data by traditional observation, not least because it affords data collection without the presence of an observer which may affect an animal's behaviour. Furthermore, our methodology and findings open new possibilities for the fine-scale study of movement and foraging ecology in wild primates, and in particular our baboon study population which is in conflict with people.

The earliest studies of collective animal behaviour were inspired by and conducted in the wild. Over the past decades much of the research in this field has shifted to the laboratory, combining high-resolution tracking of individuals with mathematical simulations or agent-based models. Today we are beginning to see a 're-wilding' of collective behaviour thanks to technological advances, providing researchers with the opportunity to quantify and model the heterogeneity that exists within the social groupings they study and within the environments in which these groups live. The perspective we present here aims to inspire and steer this research toward answering fundamental and outstanding behavioural and ecological questions, while also tackling pertinent conservation challenges.

A range of species exploit anthropogenic food resources in behaviour known as ‘raiding’. Such behavioural flexibility is considered a central component of a species’ ability to cope with human-induced environmental changes. Here, we study the behavioural processes by which raiding male chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) exploit the opportunities and mitigate the risks presented by raiding in the suburbs of Cape Town, South Africa. Ecological sampling and interviews conducted with ‘rangers’ (employed to manage the baboons’ space use) revealed that baboons are at risk of being herded out of urban spaces that contain high-energy anthropogenic food sources. Baboon-attached motion/GPS tracking collars showed that raiding male baboons spent almost all of their time at the urban edge, engaging in short, high-activity forays into the urban space. Moreover, activity levels were increased where the likelihood of deterrence by rangers was greater. Overall, these raiding baboons display a time-activity balance that is drastically altered in comparison to individuals living in more remote regions. We suggest our methods can be used to obtain precise estimates of management impact for this and other species in conflict with people.

Growing human populations are increasingly competing with wildlife for limited resources and this can result in chronic human-wildlife conflict. In the Cape Peninsula, South Africa, chacma baboons Papio ursinus are habitual raiders of urban and rural areas, foraging on a variety of human-derived foods. Raiding behaviour is considered a threat to human health and safety, may result in damage to property, and has adverse welfare and conservation impacts on baboons. To mitigate this conflict, Cape Town municipality employs field rangers with paintball markers that 'herd' baboons away from the urban edge. While this strategy is successful in reducing the time baboons spend in urban spaces, baboons still raid successfully. Here, we use direct observation and GPS data to investigate how one troop uses the peri-urban space and exploits human-derived foods in urban areas and on farmland. We contrast this behaviour with the individual management strategies adopted by field rangers which we assessed in individual interviews. We find that baboons utilize space (1) where inter-individual variation in field ranger management strategy is highest, (2) that is close to refuges in forested habitat and (3) that is close to the urban edge. Overall, this suggests adaptive space use by the baboons, whereby they minimize distances to refuges and potential food rewards, while exploiting uncertainty in risk variability that arises due to inter-individual differences in ranger management strategy. Together these results highlight the need for ranger consensus to reinforce management efficiency when dealing with a highly adaptive primate.Adaptive space use by baboons G. Fehlmann et al.