The present series of studies explores the relationship between two conceptions of self-esteem: the self as experienced by the individual and the self as presented to others. Traditional measures of self-esteem are employed, and two new method.s of assessing self-esteem in adolescents are introduced: an observational measure of self-esteem behavior (presented self) and a repeated self-report measure (experienced self). The presented self (observed behavior and peer ratings) and the experienced self (Rosenberg, Lemer, and a new method, paging devices) measures were consistent within themselves in assessing self-esteem. The presented self and the experienced self were not, however, significantly related to each other. We propose a moderator variable ("defensiveness") to explain these discrepancies, and suggest that the observation of adolescent behavior provides a more accurate assessment of self-esteem than self-report measures.In assessing self-esteem researchers have relied almost exclusively on the individual's self-report. Who but the individual, after all, is to say how he or she feels about himself or herself? But what are we to believe if the person who reports high self-regard behaves in an insecure, defensive manner? Virtually all current instruments of self-esteem, whether by definition or of methodological convenience, assume that self-evaluation is a private, subjective matter, not accessible to measurement by external behavior or through inferences made by others. In this series oi studies we propose to challenge this assumption by exploring multiple methods in assessing self-esteem.

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between divergent thinking and self-esteem in age groups across the adult life-span. A total of 218 subjects ranging in age from 18 to 84 years responded to a personal data inventory, a self-esteem measure, and a taped auditory free-response exercise in divergent thinking. Scores were obtained for fluency, flexibility, and originality of thought, and for self-esteem. Self-esteem significantly predicts divergent thinking across age groups; age does not account for a significant amount of the variance in divergent thinking scores. Middle-aged adults score highest on measures of divergent thought and self-esteem. Self-esteem is significantly associated with the expression of divergent thinking in middle-aged adults and elderly persons.

Developmental aspects of ideational fluency, flexibility, and originality were assessed across five age groups (children, adolescents, young adults, adults, middle-aged adults) comparatively in two cultures (Chinese and American). A total of 316 Chinese participants ranging in age from nine to sixty years responded in writing (Cantonese) to presentation of four groups of acoustical stimuli. Responses were scored for fluency, flexibility, and originality of thought. Comparative American data were collected in a previous study. Significant age associated differences in fluency and flexibility were obtained for Chinese respondents. A cross-cultural MANOVA yielded significant main effects for culture; American scores were uniformly higher than Chinese. Developmental trends across age groups demonstrated cross-cultural similarity in the expression of originality.

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between divergent thinking and self-esteem in preadolescents and adolescents. A second focus pertained to sex differences in the dependent variables. A total of 115 White middle class subjects ranging in age from 10-17 years responded to a personal data inventory, a self-esteem measure, and a taped auditory free-response exercise in divergent thinking. Subjects were categorized for data analysis into two age groups, preadolescents and adolescents. Scores were obtained for fluency, flexibility, and originality of thought, and for self-esteem. Adolescents were significantly more fluent and flexible than preadolescents. The two age groups did not differ significantly in orginality or self-esteem. Self-esteem correlated significantly with divergent thinking in preadolescents only. Female adolescents scored significantly higher on all dependent measures than adolescent males; there were no sex differences in preadolescents. Results are discussed from both an intra- and interstage developmental perspective on adolescence.

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