Coping with climate change includes the role of learning and knowledge. Taking a process perspective, this article analyses how municipal officers in the Oslo region of Norway are acquiring knowledge and building competence for adapting to climate change. The article illustrates the interaction between elements of experiential learning, transformative learning and social learning as bases for adapting to emerging climate changes; each being necessary and none alone being sufficient. Their importance differs according to how profound the changes in knowledge and competence are. Experiential learning and transformative learning are stronger under single-loop learning whereas social learning might emerge as more important under triple-loop learning. Because of the uncertainties of climate change, the central government might be wise not to issue detailed regulations for adaptation by municipalities. IntroductionThe global warming and climate change message has not led to relevant action in the view of many. 'The science of global warming is clear -why are we not acting as a society to combat the problem? Why are they not listening? Why is no one doing anything?' [1]. A number of studies concern the role of knowledge in climate change adaptation and mitigation as well as trying to answer these questions. These studies examine knowledge and learning as such [2][3][4]; conditions for learning and knowledge [5][6][7]; the transfer of (scientific) knowledge to users [8][9][10][11][12][13]; interaction between knowledge and politics and power [14][15][16][17][18]; and knowledge and learning within the frames of organisational structures [19]; and some studies cover several of these issues [20,21]. Although many of these studies draw attention to other factors than learning and (scientific) knowledge, most recognise the dimension of learning and knowledge. Some might claim, however, that the issue is about securing the interests of some rather than all. Frank comments by the US presidents about the sacredness of the American Way of Life 1 [22] regardless of any future climate changes are instructive in this regard: it is all about ensuring access to consumables. But this requires a certain knowledge basis to be legitimate; through efforts to undermine the scientific and knowledge basis of the climate message [23,24].Although brute force will often trump scientifically based knowledge in the quest for acquiring resources and consumables, knowledge, and some kind of truth, generally is acclaimed by most contestants. The question is probably more about what kind of knowledge we have and how this knowledge is established and challenged. Our aim in this article is to assess the relation of knowledge to climate change adaptation by analysing how knowledge actually is established among the local government officials in municipalities in the capital city region of Norway, Oslo. We apply a process perspective, viewing knowledge not as something static, but as dynamically evolving within certain institutional frames and varying in s...
Eutrophication remains a challenge for water quality, and leaching of phosphorus (P) from agriculture remains usually the determining factor as point source emissions of sewage are mainly under control. The Morsa watershed, southeast of Oslo, is a case in point. In spite of abatement actions during the past 20 years, the total concentration of P in the lake has decreased less than expected, causing growing frustration and scepticism among farmers. Hydro-biochemical interactions between phosphate (PO 4 ) and calcium, aluminium and iron in soil and water have produced unexpected results. Decline in acid rain deposition over Norway has reduced the leaching of aluminium into water. This has caused a loss of an important fixation and removal of P by sorption to precipitating aluminium oxy-hydroxides. The combination of more precipitation and higher winter temperatures causes more flushing of P from surface soil horizons. Furthermore, water-logged soil loses much of its ability to hold PO 4 in that iron is reduced, thereby allowing more P to escape. Farmers proved to have good agronomical knowledge and are taking part in an active network for spreading of agricultural practices. Reducing the amount of P in fertilizers was accepted fairly easily, whereas minimal autumn tillage has been a much harder task to implement. Therefore, just applying economic incentives will not do; developing basic environmental literacy with an ability to understand feedback loops and rebound effects is necessary. Following this, interaction between science and stakeholders is required, calling for trans-disciplinary research and trans-disciplinary processes.
The willingness of local politicians to implement measures for curbing greenhouse gas emissions and to adapt to emerging conditions is essential for successful climate change policies. This article reports findings from a survey of attitudes amongst Norwegian mayors, who prove to be fairly well informed about, and have confidence in, the climate change message. They think that Norway should do more to curb emissions, and that the municipal level should have a stronger role in policy design, but the central government should pay the costs. Most mayors favour a reduction in car driving, but have mixed opinions about jobs and environmental concerns, potentially causing tensions in policy-making. Mayors with an environmental education, representing left-wing parties, and from central rather than peripheral areas contribute to a more supportive attitude towards climate change policies.
Most of China's surface waters are undergoing anthropogenic eutrophication, mainly due to leaching of phosphorus (P) from both sewage and agriculture. This is causing quality deterioration in their scarce water resources. The problem has been acknowledged by Chinese authorities and actions sought implemented, though expected ameliorations are on hold.This interdisciplinary study focuses on actions taken by farmers adjacent to Yuqiao reservoir; the raw water source for five million people in Tianjin City. As is often the case, these farmers apply excessive amounts of fertilisers. The leaching of P is aggravated by poor P sorption capacity of the soils and a practically impermeable clay layer below a shallow ploughing layer. During heavy rainfalls the soils become saturated, causing P to be flushed out through shallow-water flow paths. A low content of organic matter in the soils makes things worse.This study documents how farmers are taking action to improve crop yield, the environment, and health issues. Farmers taking more action than others consider themselves as having good farming competence, they are usually local members of the Chinese Communist Party (CPC), and have a relatively low family income. The study concludes with suggested policy measures. The main recommendation is to collect household sewage and most of their manure and use it as feedstock for large-scale biogas reactors, combined with returning the residual organic matter to the soil. Cooperating with well-respected farmers and drawing on local CPC members' willingness to take action may facilitate a successful implementation of the above measures.
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