Changes in the communication ecosystem have generated profound transformations in current science communication. In the same way, the coexistence of diverse actors with different objectives and professional standards also raises new ethical dilemmas. The main objective of this research was to identify existing models of teaching science communication to scientists and professional communicators worldwide. To this end, we conducted 26 semi-structured interviews with science communication teachers from 15 different countries. From these interviews, we identified three models of teaching science communication to scientists: (A) the practical model, where skills such as writing, public speaking, etc., are taught; (B) the reflective model that teaches theory and the history of science communication to enable researchers to understand the relationship between science and society; and (C) the disruptive model, where traditional roles of scientific knowledge production as well as relationships and power roles in science are challenged. On the other hand, we have identified two models for professional science communicators: (A) the professional model, which is subdivided into two different approaches—theoretical (historical review, understanding of the science–society relationships, etc.) and skill-based (writing, audiovisual, etc.) that coexist in teaching programs—and (B) the research model, where tools, concepts, and methodologies for science communication research are taught.
We review the respective roles played by mass media, museums, universities, professional associations and administrations (national, autonomous and local). Although Spanish scientific communication has experienced growth and recession phases since the 1970s, it has never stopped professionalising. Good examples are the offer of specific university studies on science communication (mainly master's and postgraduates courses); the growth of professional associations in number of partners and in their activities; the creation of collaborative networks (such as units of scientific culture, museums and science centres, etc.); the emergence of research groups dedicated to the analysis of this field; and the consolidation of major professional events. 2. Science and SC in Spain before the 1970s The need to recount great happenings is something inherent in the human condition and even before printing had been invented, the public communication of news or events was already taking place. Epidemics, plagues, weather forecasts, environmental disasters, wars and their technological implementations, and quarrels between wise men (or among wise men, mages and monks) are examples of issues that have been present in the 'public arena' throughout history. Nevertheless, SC was transformed in Spain with the printing press and technological advances, as well as scientific revolutions and the institutionalisation of science. Scientists themselves (engineers, doctors, astronomers, naturalists etc.) for centuries acted as disseminators in Spain (López-Ocón Cabrera, 2000). The amassing of artefacts and the 'culture of the curio' (Bolaños, 2008, p. 44), common to all countries with a colonial past or that commissioned great scientific expeditions, formed the basis for some of the first science museums in Spain. Examples include the country's National Museum of Natural Sciences, founded in 1771 on the basis of the collections of Pedro Franco Dávila or, towards the turn of the century, today's Museum of Natural Sciences in Barcelona, based on the collections of Francesc Martorell. Science news in the press is as old as the press itself. SC historians have found records of science news dating back to the 17th century in France and England. Unfortunately, research into the history of SC in Spain is so scant that we have nothing on record regarding these periods, but there is every reason to think that Spain also published this kind of article in the same period. This is particularly so given the fact that the country was at its cultural zenith (the so-called 'Golden Age' of Spanish hegemony in Europe, spanning the 16th and 17th centuries), with writers such as Cervantes and painters like Velázquez.
Después de este largo camino siento la necesidad de dar las gracias a todas las personas que de alguna manera han contribuido para que esto sea posible: -Al Prof. Domingo Cantero Moreno, por brindarme la oportunidad de pertenecer a su grupo de investigación y permitirme estrenar la línea de Biorremediación. Su experiencia y su capacidad de crítica me han ayudado a creer en mi trabajo.-Al Prof. José Manuel Gómez Montes de Oca, por su entrega, su confianza, su disponibilidad y su eficacia, en realidad es difícil destacar sólo algunas de sus cualidades. Gracias Tete, por tu calidad humana y por saberme hacer poner los pies en la tierra. Tengo suerte de trabajar contigo.-Al Prof. Edgardo Donati, le agradezco su acogida, su disponibilidad y todo lo que he aprendido durante las estancias que realicé en su país, vos sabés que es mucho. Gracias por haberme dado la oportunidad de conocer y trabajar con tus chicas, a ellas gracias también.-A mis compañeros del departamento, cada acontecimiento que ocurre es, sin duda, fruto del trabajo de todos. Gracias por lo que me aportáis día a día. Habitualmente el contacto directo entre la biomasa y la solución que contiene los iones metálicos no es sencillo y presenta algunos problemas técnicos. La inmovilización previa de la biomasa en estructuras sólidas proporciona el tamaño, la rigidez y la porosidad necesarios para realizar este tipo de procesos. Esta técnica, además, facilita la recuperación de los iones metálicos y la reactivación de la biomasa para su reutilización.El presente trabajo se realizó con el objeto de estudiar los procesos que permiten la solubilización y precipitación de metales pesados presentes en medios contaminados empleando la capacidad de las bacterias azufreoxidantes y sulfato-reductoras para tolerar la presencia de iones metálicos y llevar a cabo estos procesos.Para ello, en primer lugar, se seleccionaron los metales a estudiar:cromo, níquel y zinc. Estos metales se encuentran presentes de forma común en los residuos de las plantas de tratamiento de superficies y en los efluentes o lodos de industrias relacionadas con la minería. Debido a su toxicidad y a su presencia en variedad de medios contaminados parece de interés tomarlos como referencia en el estudio de bioprocesos que permitan la disminución o eliminación de estas especies metálicas en dichos medios. INTRODUCCION 5El estudio de la solubilización de estos metales por la acción de las bacterias azufre-oxidantes se realizó en discontinuo para determinar de esta forma la viabilidad del proceso y la tolerancia de At. ferrooxidans y At.thiooxidans a los distintos metales. El estudio se llevó a cabo en distintas condiciones y los resultados obtenidos permitieron desarrollar un proceso de solubilización de dichos metales en forma continua, donde compuestos insolubles de éstos metales se encontraban soportados en arena.Las bacterias azufre-oxidantes tienen además la capacidad de generar compuestos reductores a partir de la oxidación de azufre elemental, esta propiedad les permite reducir el cromo hexaval...
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