Until recently, members of the connexin gene family were believed to comprise the sole molecular component forming gap junction channels in vertebrates. The recent discovery of the pannexin gene family has challenged this view, as these genes may encode for a putative second class of gap junction proteins in vertebrates. The expression of pannexin genes overlaps with those cellular networks known to exhibit a high degree of gap junctional coupling. We investigated the spatio-temporal mRNA distribution of one member of this gene family, pannexin1 (Panx1), in the brain and retina of mice using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and a combination of in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry for cellular resolution. Our results demonstrate a widespread expression of Panx1 in the brain, retina and other non-neuronal tissues. In the cortex, cerebellum and eye, Panx1 is expressed at early embryonic time points and peaks around embryonic day 18 followed by a decline towards adulthood. Most notably, Panx1 is detectable in neurons of many brain nuclei, which are known to be coupled by gap junctions as well as in previously unrecognized areas. Abundant expression was found in the adult hippocampal and neocortical pyramidal cells and interneurons, neurons of the reticular thalamus, the inferior olive, magnocellular hypothalamic neurons, midbrain and brain stem motoneurons, Purkinje cells and the retina.

Electrical synapses can undergo activity-dependent plasticity. The calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) appears to play a critical role in this phenomenon, but the underlying mechanisms of how CaMKII affects the neuronal gap junction protein connexin36 (Cx36) are unknown. Here we demonstrate effective binding of 35 S-labeled CaMKII to 2 juxtamembrane cytoplasmic domains of Cx36 and in vitro phosphorylation of this protein by the kinase. Both domains reveal striking similarities with segments of the regulatory subunit of CaMKII, which include the pseudosubstrate and pseudotarget sites of the kinase. Similar to the NR2B subunit of the NMDA receptor both Cx36 binding sites exhibit phosphorylation-dependent interaction and autonomous activation of CaMKII. CaMKII and Cx36 were shown to be significantly colocalized in the inferior olive, a brainstem nucleus highly enriched in electrical synapses, indicating physical proximity of these proteins. In analogy to the current notion of NR2B interaction with CaMKII, we propose a model that provides a mechanistic framework for CaMKII and Cx36 interaction at electrical synapses.brain ͉ electrical synapse ͉ gap junction ͉ protein-protein interaction ͉ synaptic plasticity

Pannexin 1 (Panx1) represents a class of vertebrate membrane channels, bearing significant sequence homology with the invertebrate gap junction proteins, the innexins and more distant similarities in the membrane topologies and pharmacological sensitivities with gap junction proteins of the connexin family. In the nervous system, cooperation among pannexin channels, adenosine receptors, and KATP channels modulating neuronal excitability via ATP and adenosine has been recognized, but little is known about the significance in vivo. However, the localization of Panx1 at postsynaptic sites in hippocampal neurons and astrocytes in close proximity together with the fundamental role of ATP and adenosine for CNS metabolism and cell signaling underscore the potential relevance of this channel to synaptic plasticity and higher brain functions. Here, we report increased excitability and potently enhanced early and persistent LTP responses in the CA1 region of acute slice preparations from adult Panx1−/− mice. Adenosine application and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-blocking normalized this phenotype, suggesting that absence of Panx1 causes chronic extracellular ATP/adenosine depletion, thus facilitating postsynaptic NMDAR activation. Compensatory transcriptional up-regulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 4 (grm4) accompanies these adaptive changes. The physiological modification, promoted by loss of Panx1, led to distinct behavioral alterations, enhancing anxiety and impairing object recognition and spatial learning in Panx1−/− mice. We conclude that ATP release through Panx1 channels plays a critical role in maintaining synaptic strength and plasticity in CA1 neurons of the adult hippocampus. This result provides the rationale for in-depth analysis of Panx1 function and adenosine based therapies in CNS disorders.

Mitochondria are central organelles in cellular energy metabolism, apoptosis, and aging processes. A signaling network regulating these functions was recently shown to include soluble adenylyl cyclase as a local source of the second messenger cAMP in the mitochondrial matrix. However, a mitochondrial cAMPdegrading phosphodiesterase (PDE) necessary for switching off this cAMP signal has not yet been identified. Here, we describe the identification and characterization of a PDE2A isoform in mitochondria from rodent liver and brain. We find that mitochondrial PDE2A is located in the matrix and that the unique N terminus of PDE2A isoform 2 specifically leads to mitochondrial localization of this isoform. Functional assays show that mitochondrial PDE2A forms a local signaling system with soluble adenylyl cyclase in the matrix, which regulates the activity of the respiratory chain. Our findings complete a cAMP signaling cascade in mitochondria and have implications for understanding the regulation of mitochondrial processes and for their pharmacological modulation.Mitochondria play central roles in cellular energy metabolism, as well as in the regulation of cell cycle progression, apoptosis, and aging processes (1, 2). Despite their importance, signaling into, from, and within mitochondria is still not well understood. Emerging signaling mechanisms in mitochondria and between the organelle and its environment include reversible protein deacetylation (3, 4), redox regulation and reactive oxygen species formation (5-7), and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) signaling (8, 9).cAMP-dependent effects and proteins of cAMP signaling systems, such as cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (CREB), protein kinase A (PKA), and A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs), 3 have been described in mitochondria (10 -12). In addition to these effector proteins, a complete cAMP signaling microdomain requires enzymes for synthesis and degradation of the second messenger. Although an intramitochondrial cAMP source has been identified recently (8), there is no known cAMP-degrading enzyme in this organelle. Cyclic AMP is formed inside mitochondria by soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) (8), a member of Class III of the nucleotidyl cyclase family, which also comprises the G-protein-regulated transmembrane adenylyl cyclases (13). Unique from transmembrane adenylyl cyclases, sAC is activated by bicarbonate (14), and it appears to act as a metabolic sensor (15), whose mitochondrial form(s) seems to modulate PKA-mediated regulation of respiration (8) and apoptosis (16).The opponents of the cyclic nucleotide-forming cyclases are cyclic nucleotide monophosphate (cNMP)-degrading phosphodiesterases (PDEs). Mammalian cells contain a varying subset of members of the classical PDE family, which comprises 11 PDE gene families (PDE1-11) (17, 18) and non-generic PDEs such as the protein human Prune (19,20). The isoforms of the generic PDEs comprise homologous catalytic domains, fused to varying regulatory domains, making them sensitive to a variety of signals s...