Summary The gastrointestinal tract is covered by mucus that has different properties in the stomach, small intestine and colon. The large highly glycosylated gel-forming mucins MUC2 and MUC5AC are the major components of the mucus in the intestine and stomach, respectively. In the small intestine mucus limits the number of bacteria that can reach the epithelium and the Peyer’s patches. In the large intestine the inner mucus layer separates the commensal bacteria from the host epithelium. The outer colonic mucus layer is the natural habitat for the commensal bacteria. The intestinal goblet cells not only secrete the MUC2 mucin, but also a number of typical mucus components: CLCA1, FCGBP, AGR2, ZG16, and TFF3. The goblet cells have recently been shown to have a novel gate-keeping role for the presentation of oral antigens to the immune system. Goblet cells deliver small intestinal luminal material to the lamina propria dendritic cells of the tolerogenic CD103+-type. In addition to the gel forming mucins, the transmembrane mucins MUC3, MUC12 and MUC17 form the enterocyte glycocalyx that can reach about a micrometer out from the brush border. The MUC17 mucin can shuttle from a surface to an intracellular vesicle localization suggesting that enterocytes might control and report epithelial microbial challenge. There is not only communication from the epithelial cells to the immune system, but also in the opposite direction. One example of this is IL10 that can affect and improve the properties of the inner colonic mucus layer. The mucus and epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract are the primary gate keepers and controllers of bacterial interactions with the host immune system, but our understanding of this relationship is still in its infancy.

Goblet cells and their main secretory product, mucus, have long been poorly appreciated; however, recent discoveries have changed this and placed these cells at the center stage of our understanding of mucosal biology and the immunology of the intestinal tract. The mucus system differs substantially between the small and large intestine, although it is built around MUC2 mucin polymers in both cases. Furthermore, that goblet cells and the regulation of their secretion also differ between these two parts of the intestine is of fundamental importance for a better understanding of mucosal immunology. There are several types of goblet cell which can be delineated based on their location and function. The surface colonic goblet cells secrete continuously to maintain the inner mucus layer, whereas goblet cells of the colonic and small intestinal crypts secrete upon stimulation, for example after endocytosis or in response to acetyl choline. However, despite much progress in recent years our understanding of goblet cell function and regulation is still in its infancy.

Diet strongly affects gut microbiota composition, and gut bacteria can influence the colonic mucus layer, a physical barrier that separates trillions of gut bacteria from the host. However, the interplay between a Western style diet (WSD), gut microbiota composition, and the intestinal mucus layer is less clear. Here we show that mice fed a WSD have an altered colonic microbiota composition that causes increased penetrability and a reduced growth rate of the inner mucus layer. Both barrier defects can be prevented by transplanting microbiota from chow-fed mice. In addition, we found that administration of Bifidobacterium longum was sufficient to restore mucus growth, whereas administration of the fiber inulin prevented increased mucus penetrability in WSD-fed mice. We hypothesize that the presence of distinct bacteria is crucial for proper mucus function. If confirmed in humans, these findings may help to better understand diseases with an affected mucus layer, such as ulcerative colitis.

Innate immune signaling pathways contribute to the protection of host tissue when bacterially challenged. Colonic goblet cells are responsible for generating the two mucus layers that physically separate the luminal microbiota from the host epithelium. We report the identification of a ‘sentinel’ goblet cell (senGC) localized to the colonic crypt entrance. This cell non-specifically endocytoses and reacts to TLR2/1, TLR4 and TLR5 ligands by activating the NLRP6 inflammasome downstream of TLR-MyD88-dependent Nox/Duox ROS synthesis. This triggers Ca2+-dependent compound MUC2 exocytosis from the senGC and generates an intercellular gap junction signal that induces MUC2 secretion from adjacent goblet cells in the upper crypt which expels bacteria. Thus, senGCs guard and protect the colonic crypt from bacterial intruders that have penetrated the inner mucus layer.

The distal colon functions as a bioreactor and harbors an enormous amount of bacteria in a mutualistic relationship with the host. The microbiota have to be kept at a safe distance to prevent inflammation, something that is achieved by a dense inner mucus layer that lines the epithelial cells. The large polymeric nets made up by the heavily O-glycosylated MUC2 mucin forms this physical barrier. Proteomic analyses of mucus have identified the lectin-like protein ZG16 (zymogen granulae protein 16) as an abundant mucus component. To elucidate the function of ZG16, we generated recombinant ZG16 and studied Zg16 −/− mice. ZG16 bound to and aggregated Gram-positive bacteria via binding to the bacterial cell wall peptidoglycan. Zg16−/− mice have a distal colon mucus layer with normal thickness, but with bacteria closer to the epithelium. Using distal colon explants mounted in a horizontal perfusion chamber we demonstrated that treatment of bacteria with recombinant ZG16 hindered bacterial penetration into the mucus. The inner colon mucus of Zg16 −/− animals had a higher load of Gram-positive bacteria and showed bacteria with higher motility in the mucus close to the host epithelium compared with cohoused littermate Zg16. The more penetrable Zg16−/− mucus allowed Gram-positive bacteria to translocate to systemic tissues. Viable bacteria were found in spleen and were associated with increased abdominal fat pad mass in Zg16animals. The function of ZG16 reveals a mechanism for keeping bacteria further away from the host colon epithelium.mucin | colon | inflammation | obesity | peptidoglycan