Background Spinach is a nitrogen (N) demanding crop with a weekly N uptake of up to 60 kg ha–1. Consequently, a high N supply is required, which can temporarily lead to high quantities of nitrate (NO3–) being at risk of leaching. Aims The objective of this study was to develop a N fertilization approach to reduce the risk of NO3– leaching in field‐grown spinach production without adversely affecting crop yield and quality at an early and late harvest stage. Methods Ten fertilization trials were conducted to compare different base fertilization rates and splits of top dressings. For top dressings, granulated fertilizers or foliar sprays were used. In a further treatment, N supply was reduced by withholding the second top dressing of 50–70 kg ha−1. Results Nitrate concentration at risk of leaching was considerably reduced by decreasing the base fertilizer rate as well as by splitting the top dressing. However, at an early harvest stage, total aboveground dry mass was reduced by, on average, 6% by these measures across all seasons. In contrast, at a later harvest stage, spinach was less affected by the fertilizer schedule. Urea foliar sprays proved to be insufficient in promoting plant growth and caused leaf necrosis. A reduced N supply led to impaired plant growth and yellowish leaves in both spring and winter. Conclusions Base N fertilization of spinach is only required in spring, but not in other seasons. Despite slight yield reduction, the top dressing should be split to reduce the risk of NO3− leaching after an early harvest.

Abstract. The goal of this study is to clarify research needs and identify effective practices for enhancing soil health. This was done by a synopsis of soil literature that specifically tests practices designed to maintain or enhance elements of soil health. Using an expert panel of soil scientists and practitioners, we then assessed the evidence in the soil synopsis to highlight practices beneficial to soil health, practices considered detrimental, and practices that need further investigation. A partial Spearman's correlation was used to analyse the panel's responses. We found that increased certainty in scientific evidence led to practices being considered to be more effective due to them being empirically justified. This suggests that for practices to be considered effective and put into practice, a substantial body of research is needed to support the effectiveness of the practice. This is further supported by the high proportion of practices (33 %), such as changing the timing of ploughing or amending the soil with crops grown as green manures, that experts felt had unknown effectiveness, usually due to insufficiently robust evidence. Only 7 of the 27 reviewed practices were considered to be beneficial, or likely to be beneficial in enhancing soil health. These included the use of (1) integrated nutrient management (organic and inorganic amendments); (2) cover crops; (3) crop rotations; (4) intercropping between crop rows or underneath the main crop; (5) formulated chemical compounds (such as nitrification inhibitors); (6) control of traffic and traffic timing; and (7) reducing grazing intensity. Our assessment, which uses the Delphi technique, is increasingly used to improve decision-making in conservation and agricultural policy, identified practices that can be put into practice to benefit soil health. Moreover, it has enabled us to identify practices that need further research and a need for increased communication between researchers, policy-makers, and practitioners, in order to find effective means of enhancing soil health.

Create ponds (amphibians in general) Create ponds (frogs) Create ponds (natterjack toads) Create ponds (salamanders including newts) Create wetlands Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds Restore wetlands Create ponds (great crested newts) Create ponds (green toads) Create ponds (toads) Remove specific aquatic plants Restore ponds Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading Add nutrients to new ponds as larvae food source Add specific plants to aquatic habitats Add woody debris to ponds Create refuge areas in aquatic habitatsManage woodland edges for birds Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (reedbeds) Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (savannahs) Plant trees to act as windbreaks Plough habitats Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests) Remove coarse woody debris from forests Replace non-native species of tree/shrub Re-seed grasslands Use environmentally sensitive flood management Use fire suppression/control Use greentree reservoir management Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest) Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting Use variable retention management during forestry operations Apply herbicide to mid-and understorey vegetation Treat wetlands with herbicides Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats) Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests) Protect nest trees before burning 3.10 Habitat restoration and creation Restore or create forests Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands) Restore or create grassland Restore or create traditional water meadows Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands) Restore or create shrubland Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests) Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons) Restore or create savannahs Revegetate gravel pits 3.11 Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species 3.11.1 Reduce predation by other species Control mammalian predators on islands Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities Control avian predators on islands Control invasive ants on islands Reduce predation by translocating predators Control predators not on islands 3.11.2 Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control Distribute poison bait using dispensers Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control Use repellents on baits Do birds take bait designed for pest control? 3.11.3 Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks Protect bird nests using electric fencing Use artificial nests that discourage predation Guard nests to prevent predation Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation Protect nests from ants Use multiple barriers to protect nests Use naphthalene to...

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Restore habitat connectivity Change mowing regime Create habitat connectivity 1.12.2 Aquatic habitat Create ponds (amphibians in general) Create ponds (frogs) Create ponds (natterjack toads) Create ponds (salamanders including newts) Create wetlands Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds Restore wetlands Create ponds (great crested newts) Create ponds (green toads) Create ponds (toads) Remove specific aquatic plants Restore ponds Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading Add nutrients to new ponds as larvae food source Add specific plants to aquatic habitats Add woody debris to ponds Create refuge areas in aquatic habitats Sow crops in spring rather than autumn Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example Reduce tillage Implement mosaic management Increase crop diversity to benefit birds Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping) Create beetle banks Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows Revert arable land to permanent grassland Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings Create corn bunting plots Leave unharvested cereal headlands within arable fields Plant nettle stripsProvide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds) Provide artificial nests (divers/loons) Provide artificial nests (ground-and tree-nesting seabirds) Provide artificial nests (oilbirds) Provide artificial nests (raptors) Provide artificial nests (wildfowl -artificial/floating islands) Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests Guard nests Provide artificial nests (gamebirds) Provide artificial nests (grebes) Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos) Provide artificial nests (parrots) Provide artificial nests (pigeons) 200 Provide artificial nests (rails) 200 Provide artificial nests (rollers) 200 Provide artificial nests (swifts) 200 Provide artificial nests (trogons) Provide artificial nests (waders) Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers) Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather3.15 Captive breeding, rearing and releases (ex situ conservation) 3.15.1 Captive breeding Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors) Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds) Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds) Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders) Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors) Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards) Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes) Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds) Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots) Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins) Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails) Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises) Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land Install mechanical barriers to deter primates (e.g. fences, ditches) Use of natural hedges to deter primates Use of unpalatable buffer crops Change of crop (i.e. to a crop less pal...