In the water production industry, reverse osmosis (RO) membrane technology is a durable, promising, and much-used separation method. Its application enables the efficient removal of a wide variety of contaminants (i.e., microbial constituents, total dissolved solids, and organic compounds). Feed streams of different qualities (e.g., raw, natural, chemically contaminated or brackish, and seawater) are used to produce high-purity water that is microbiologically safe and biologically stable (15,25). However, the widespread application of this technology is limited because the current generation of RO filtration units experience biofouling problems (14). The design of so-called "spiral wound" membrane elements and the conditions at the membrane, feed-side spacer, and other internal surfaces within these RO filters make them prone to microbial attachment and the subsequent formation of biofilm layers. A variety of microorganisms are involved in the development of these surface-attached complex structures after prolonged operation of the RO system, depending on the type and concentration of contaminants in the feed water and the type of pretreatment (5,6,7,32,38). The biofilm occurrence is a principal problem for proper RO system performance. It can lead to blocking of the feed concentrate channel and to clogging of the membrane. Biofilm formation results in an increased energy requirement of the feed water pumps, a lower flux, and a decrease of permeate quality

The origin, structure, and composition of biofilms in various compartments of an industrial full-scale reverse-osmosis (RO) membrane water purification plant were analyzed by molecular biological methods. Samples were taken when the RO installation suffered from a substantial pressure drop and decreased production. The bacterial community of the RO membrane biofilm was clearly different from the bacterial community present at other locations in the RO plant, indicating the development of a specialized bacterial community on the RO membranes. The typical freshwater phylotypes in the RO membrane biofilm (i.e., Proteobacteria, Cytophaga-Flexibacter-Bacteroides group, and Firmicutes) were also present in the water sample fed to the plant, suggesting a feed water origin. However, the relative abundances of the different species in the mature biofilm were different from those in the feed water, indicating that the biofilm was actively formed on the RO membrane sheets and was not the result of a concentration of bacteria present in the feed water. The majority of the microorganisms (59% of the total number of clones) in the biofilm were related to the class Proteobacteria, with a dominance of Sphingomonas spp. (27% of all clones). Members of the genus Sphingomonas seem to be responsible for the biofouling of the membranes in the RO installation.Membrane biofouling is an important problem for reverseosmosis (RO) systems, in particular for RO membranes (13,14,17). The attachment of bacteria to membrane surfaces and subsequent biofilm growth in the spiral-wound RO membrane elements strongly influence RO system performance and RO plant productivity. Problems are due primarily to an increase in the differential pressures of the RO modules, the long-term membrane flux reduction of the RO plant, and the deterioration of product water quality as a result of high levels of biomass accumulation on RO membrane surfaces (37,43,45). Once in progress, biofouling regularly and persistently hampers the RO water treatment process (13,15).Presently, adequate measures to prevent or reduce biofouling are lacking. The microbiological and physical processes associated with biofilm formation and biofouling in these dynamic and high-pressure environments are poorly understood. The conditions change from an oligotrophic environment in the beginning to a heterotrophic environment when the biofilm is mature. The first indications that a variety of different microorganisms participate in biofilm development on RO membranes were obtained by traditional dissections of fouled RO membrane elements (autopsies) and the subsequent analysis of the membrane surface-fouling layers. The conventional plating and colony isolation methods showed the presence of a wide variety of species on the feed and permeative surfaces of biofouled cellulose acetate, polyetherurea thin-film composite, or polyamide thin-film-composite membranes (4,9,17,19,28,38,39). However, by cultivation-dependent methods, information about only 0.01 to 3% of the population in natural envi...

The microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) is a promising system for hydrogen production. Still, expensive catalysts such as platinum are needed for efficient hydrogen evolution at the cathode. Recently, the possibility to use a biocathode as an alternative for platinum was shown. The microorganisms involved in hydrogen evolution in such systems are not yet identified. We analyzed the microbial community of a mixed culture biocathode that was enriched in an MEC bioanode. This biocathode produced 1.1 A m−2 and 0.63 m3 H2 m−3 cathode liquid volume per day. The bacterial population consisted of 46% Proteobacteria, 25% Firmicutes, 17% Bacteroidetes, and 12% related to other phyla. The dominant ribotype belonged to the species Desulfovibrio vulgaris. The second major ribotype cluster constituted a novel taxonomic group at the genus level, clustering within uncultured Firmicutes. The third cluster belonged to uncultured Bacteroidetes and grouped in a taxonomic group from which only clones were described before; most of these clones originated from soil samples. The identified novel taxonomic groups developed under environmentally unusual conditions, and this may point to properties that have not been considered before. A pure culture of Desulfovibrio strain G11 inoculated in a cathode of an MEC led to a current development from 0.17 to 0.76 A m−2 in 9 days, and hydrogen gas formation was observed. On the basis of the known characteristics of Desulfovibrio spp., including its ability to produce hydrogen, we propose a mechanism for hydrogen evolution through Desulfovibrio spp. in a biocathode system.

The impact of conventional chemical treatment on initiation and spatiotemporal development of biofilms on reverse osmosis (RO) membranes was investigated in situ using flow cells placed in parallel with the RO system of a full-scale water treatment plant. The flow cells got the same feed (extensively pre-treated fresh surface water) and operational conditions (temperature, pressure and membrane flux) as the full-scale installation. With regular intervals both the full-scale RO membrane modules and the flow cells were cleaned using conventional chemical treatment. For comparison some flow cells were not cleaned. Sampling was done at different time periods of flow cell operation (i.e., 1, 5, 10 and 17 days and 1, 3, 6 and 12 months). The combination of molecular (FISH, DGGE, clone libraries and sequencing) and microscopic (field emission scanning electron, epifluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy) techniques made it possible to thoroughly analyze the abundance, composition and 3D architecture of the emerged microbial layers. The results suggest that chemical treatment facilitates initiation and subsequent maturation of biofilm structures on the RO membrane and feed-side spacer surfaces. Biofouling control might be possible only if the cleaning procedures are adapted to effectively remove the (dead) biomass from the RO modules after chemical treatment.

No abstract