This study examined willingness to communicate (WTC) in English among Iranian EFL learners in the classroom context. For this purpose, a second language willingness to communicate (L2WTC) model based on WTC theory (MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei, & Noels, 1998) and empirical studies was proposed and tested using structural equation modeling (SEM). This model examined the interrelationships among WTC in English, communication confidence, motivation, classroom environment, attitudes toward learning English, and English language achievement. A total of 243 English‐major university students in Iran completed a questionnaire. The proposed SEM model adequately fitted the data. Results of the SEM indicated that classroom environment was the strongest direct predictor of L2WTC; communication confidence directly affected WTC; motivation indirectly affected WTC through communication confidence; English language proficiency indirectly affected WTC through communication confidence; and the classroom environment directly affected attitudes, motivation, and communication confidence.

Learning a second/foreign language (L2) is a long process and L2 learners certainly will encounter setbacks and discouragements during this process. However, their reactions to these failures might be different based on their perceptions of L2 learning ability and their subsequent effort put into L2 learning. Based on this, the present study aimed at exploring two underresearched constructs within the field of applied linguistics, namely grit (continuous effort and interest for long-term goals) and language mindset (individuals’ perceptions of their language learning ability). We had five main aims: to examine (a) the factor structure of grit, (b) the factor structure of language mindset, (c) whether there are gender differences in grit or language mindset, (d) the relationships between language mindset and grittiness, and (e) the roles of grit and language mindset as predictors of L2 achievement. To address these aims, a total number of 1,178 university students who were taking general English courses took part in our study and completed the questionnaires. Results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the two-factor structure for both grit and language mindset fit the data better than the single-factor structure. We also tested several structural equation models and found that a growth language mindset weakly, but positively, predicted one component of grit (perseverance of effort, or POE), but not the other (consistency of interest, or COI). A fixed language mindset did not predict POE, but did negatively predict COI. Finally, only growth language mindset was a weak, positive predictor of L2 achievement. At the end, theoretical and pedagogical implications regarding the role of grit and language mindset in L2 learning are presented.

The purpose of the present study is to examine willingness to communicate in the second language (L2WTC) construct and its underlying variables among non–English major students in Iran. The study used WTC and socioeducational models for examining L2 communication and L2 learning. Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and t test were used with a sample of 158 non–English major university students. An L2 communication model was also proposed and tested using structural equation modeling. The results showed that L2 self-confidence and attitudes toward international community were two predictors of L2WTC in Iranian context. The paths from motivation to L2WTC and openness to experience to L2 self confidence were not significant and thus were deleted. The model shows a good fit to the data, which indicates the potential for using the L2WTC construct for English as a foreign language context.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relations between emotions, classroom environment, and willingness to communicate (WTC) using the advanced quantitative methodological procedure of doubly latent multilevel analysis. To this end, 1528 secondary school students from 65 different classrooms in Iran participated in the study. Results of the doubly latent multilevel analysis showed that a positive classroom environment is related to fostering WTC and enjoyment, while it reduces anxiety among students. Moreover, enjoyment was found as an important factor in increasing WTC at both student and classroom level, while anxiety reduced WTC only at the student level. Finally, the results of the study are discussed and pedagogical implications are provided for language teachers.

Willingness to communicate (WTC) has been considered an important part of the language learning and communication process, playing a pivotal role in the development of language learners' communicative competence. Many studies have been conducted on the relationship between WTC and related variables in learning English as a foreign language. However, there is a lack of a comprehensive meta-analysis concerning the effect sizes of these studies. Thus, the present meta-analysis investigated the overall average correlation between L2 WTC and three key variables influencing foreign/second language learners' WTC, specifically perceived communicative competence, language anxiety, and motivation. The results of the meta-analysis indicated that all three variables were moderately correlated with L2 WTC, with perceived communicative competence having the largest effect. Finally, tests of the heterogeneity of the effect sizes indicated the possibility of the presence of the moderators which might play an influential role in the relationship of WTC with anxiety, perceived communicative competence, and motivation.