Large earthquakes alter the stress in the surrounding crust, leading to triggered earthquakes and aftershocks. A number of time-dependent processes, including afterslip, pore-fluid flow and viscous relaxation of the lower crust and upper mantle, further modify the stress and pore pressure near the fault, and hence the tendency for triggered earthquakes. It has proved difficult, however, to distinguish between these processes on the basis of direct field observations, despite considerable effort. Here we present a unique combination of measurements consisting of satellite radar interferograms and water-level changes in geothermal wells following two magnitude-6.5 earthquakes in the south Iceland seismic zone. The deformation recorded in the interferograms cannot be explained by either afterslip or visco-elastic relaxation, but is consistent with rebound of a porous elastic material in the first 1-2 months following the earthquakes. This interpretation is confirmed by direct measurements which show rapid (1-2-month) recovery of the earthquake-induced water-level changes. In contrast, the duration of the aftershock sequence is projected to be approximately 3.5 years, suggesting that pore-fluid flow does not control aftershock duration. But because the surface strains are dominated by pore-pressure changes in the shallow crust, we cannot rule out a longer pore-pressure transient at the depth of the aftershocks. The aftershock duration is consistent with models of seismicity rate variations based on rate- and state-dependent friction laws.

a b s t r a c tTwo and three-dimensional field scale reservoir models of CO 2 mineral sequestration in basalts were developed and calibrated against a large set of field data. Resulting principal hydrological properties are lateral and vertical intrinsic permeabilities of 300 and 1700 × 10 −15 m 2 , respectively, effective matrix porosity of 8.5% and a 25 m/year estimate for regional groundwater flow velocity.Reactive chemistry was coupled to calibrated models and predictive mass transport and reactive transport simulations carried out for both a 1200-tonnes pilot CO 2 injection and a full-scale 400,000-tonnes CO 2 injection scenario. Reactive transport simulations of the pilot injection predict 100% CO 2 mineral capture within 10 years and cumulative fixation per unit surface area of 5000 tonnes/km 2 . Corresponding values for the full-scale scenario are 80% CO 2 mineral capture after 100 years and cumulative fixation of 35,000 tonnes/km 2 . CO 2 sequestration rate is predicted to range between 1200 and 22,000 tonnes/year in both scenarios.The predictive value of mass transport simulations was found to be considerably lower than that of reactive transport simulations. Results from three-dimensional simulations were also in significantly better agreement with field observations than equivalent two-dimensional results.Despite only being indicative, it is concluded from this study that fresh basalts may comprise ideal geological CO 2 storage formations.

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The method of 'multiple interacting continua' (MINC) was applied to include microscopic rate-limiting processes in continuum scale reactive transport models of basaltic glass dissolution. The MINC method involves dividing the system up to ambient fluid and grains, using a specific surface area to describe the interface between the two. The various grains and regions within grains can then be described by dividing them into continua separated by dividing surfaces. Millions of grains can thus be considered within the method without the need to explicity discretizing them. Four continua were used for describing a dissolving basaltic glass grain; the first one describes the ambient fluid around the grain, while the second, third and fourth continuum refer to a diffusive leached layer, the dissolving part of the grain and the inert part of the grain, respectively. The model was validated using the TOUGHREACT simulator and data from column flow through experiments of basaltic glass dissolution at low, neutral and high pH values. Successful reactive transport simulations of the experiments and overall adequate agreement between measured and simulated values provides validation that the MINC approach can be applied for incorporating microscopic effects in continuum scale basaltic glass dissolution models. Equivalent models can be used when simulating dissolution and alteration of other minerals. The study provides an example of how numerical modeling and experimental work can be combined to enhance understanding of mechanisms associated with basaltic glass dissolution. Column outlet concentrations indicated basaltic glass to dissolve stoichiometrically at pH 3. Predictive simulations with the developed MINC model indicated significant precipitation of secondary minerals within the column at neutral and high pH, explaining observed non-stoichiometric outlet concentrations at these pH levels. Clay, zeolite and hydroxide precipitation was predicted to be most abundant within the column.

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