Cultivated land is a vital strategic resource to ensure human survival and development. It is pertinent to introduce the environmental constraint index into the study of cultivated land use efficiency and promote the coordinated development of environmental and economic benefits. Based on the construction of the evaluation index system of cultivated land use efficiency, including carbon emission as the undesired output, this paper used the super efficiency MinDS model to measure the cultivated land use efficiency of China by using the data from 2009 to 2019. The results show the following. (1) During 2009–2019, the overall use efficiency of cultivated land in China showed a tendency to fluctuate and increase, ranging from 0.871 to 0.948, indicating high use efficiency. Eleven provinces had an average land use efficiency of more than 1. (2) Among the input–output indicators, the carbon emission indicator showed the largest average percentage of improvement at 15.21%, followed by the pesticide index and agricultural machinery index, and the smallest average improvement was the irrigation indicator at 3.55%. (3) There were apparent differences in the average relaxation and improvement proportion of input–output indicators of cultivated land use in the provinces. (4) China’s cultivated land use efficiency has absolute σ-convergence, absolute β-convergence and conditional β-convergence, which means that the difference in cultivated land use efficiency between provinces has a tendency to decrease, and that China’s cultivated land use efficiency will stabilize. This paper provides a clear direction for the promotion and improvement of cultivated land use efficiency in China.