Lithium plating is commonly observed in anodes charged at fast rates, and can lead to capacity loss and battery safety issues. The increased risk of plating has been attributed to transport limitations, and architectured electrodes may reduce plating risk. However, while theoretical studies have shown that reaction non-uniformity arises due to interplay of transport limitations, anode open circuit voltage behavior and reaction kinetics, its effect on lithium plating has not been studied. We use analytic and numerical simulations to predict onset of plating in graphite anode half-cells at high C-rates and demonstrate how anodes with layered porosities can delay plating. Simplified analytical models identify trends for plating onset and predictions are validated against numerical models. A calibrated numerical model of graphite demonstrates qualitative agreement with analytical model predictions. This reaction inhomogeneity mechanism occurs in the absence of lithium ion depletion, indicating that these mechanisms may contribute to capacity loss independently or simultaneously. A bilayer model of graphite exhibits delayed plating onset, and an optimization procedure is presented. This theoretical work presents quantitative and mechanistic insight on how reaction inhomogenity affects lithium metal plating onset and can be used as a guide to engineer anodes resistant to lithium plating.

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In this work, an optofluidics based micro-photocatalytic fuel cell with a membrane-free and air-breathing mode was proposed to greatly enhance the cell performance. The incorporation of the optofluidic technology into a photocatalytic fuel cell not only enlarges the specific illumination and reaction area but also enhances the photon and mass transfer, which eventually boosts the photocatalytic reaction rate. Our results show that this new photocatalytic fuel cell yields a much higher performance in converting organics into electricity. A maximum power density of 0.58 mW cm(-2) was achieved. The degradation performance of this new optofluidic micro-photocatalytic fuel cell was also evaluated and the maximum degradation efficiency reached 83.9%. In short, the optofluidic micro-photocatalytic fuel cell developed in this work shows promising potential for simultaneously degrading organic pollutants and generating electricity.