Background: Enrofloxacin is a bactericidal antimicrobial drug in the fluoroquinolone group, developed for use only in the veterinary field. It is effective against gram negative and gram positive bacteria, Mikoplazma, Rickettsia, Ehrlichia ve Chlamydia. Enrofloxacin is converted to several effective and ineffective metabolites including ciprofloxacin. Ten to fifty percent of the drug is eliminated via urine and bile in unmetabolized form. Enrofloxacin is used in all domestic animal including ruminant and winged animals. In calves, enrofloxacin finds utilization in the respiratory system infections, septicemia caused by colibacillosis and in cases of intestinal inflammation by oral and parenteral ways. There are around 1920 enrofloxacin preparations with different formulations in Turkey. Eight hundred fifty-five of these preparations are in the form of parenteral solutions that are ready for use. In this study, the pharmacokinetics of two enrofloxacin preparations that are used in calves were investigated.Materials, Methods & Results: Ten female calves (Jersey strain, 46-50 day-old) were included. The animals were taken to a separate environment 15 days in advance, and medication administration was restrained. Throughout the trial, the animals were fed with unmedicated feed. Calf growing feed, water, and hay were given freely as feed. They continued to be fed by 3 liters of milk twice a day. The study was reviewed by Ankara University Animal Trials Local Ethics Committee and approved with decision number 2007-7-17 and file number 2007-56. The calves were divided into two groups including five calves each. Reference drug and test drug were administered intramuscularly at a dose of 2.5 mg per kg to group 1 and group 2, respectively. Blood samples were taken before (0.0 min) and after the drug administration at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 18, 24 and 36th h. The method used by Anadon et al. was used for plasma enrofloxacin extraction and concentration. The chemicals, drugs, and solutions that were used in the study are acetonitrile, triethylamine, methanol, enrofloxacin (provided by Bayer Turk), reference drug (50 mg/mL injectable enrofloxacin, 20 mL per vial), test drug (100 mg/mL injectable enrofloxacin, 20 mL per vial). The pharmacokinetic variables were investigated after parenteral administration of reference and test drugs. The plasma concentration-time curve for each animal showed that enrofloxacin followed the two-compartment open model. There was statically significant differences in area under curve, absorption rate constant and absorption half-life between reference and test drugs (P < 0.05). However these differences were evaluated as insignificant from the point of clinical pharmacology. Peak plasma concentration was reached 0.8-1.2 h after the administration of both reference and test drugs. It was also seen that the drug concentration stayed above 0.5 µg/mL for approximately 4 h and decreases to 0.04 µg/mL at the 36th hour after administration.Discussion: The results obtained for both reference and test drugs in this study show that enrofloxacin is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal track. The drug concentration in plasma continues to be higher than 0.5 mg/mL during the first 24 h. The authors of this study think that the differences that were found in this study regarding pharmacokinetic variables are not significant regarding clinical pharmacology although some statistically significant differences were found. The results of this study imply that both reference and test drugs may be used interchangeably.

Chlamydiosis is a disease that can be seen in different forms in the animals. In the genus Chlamydia, two species have been reported in the studies. The first is C. trachomatis, which is responsible for infections in humans and C. psittaci, which has a wide host distribution, including many animals and humans. C. psittaci is usually transmitted from poultry to humans. Along with causing flu-like conditions in humans, it has also caused abortions in pregnant women by contact with sheep and goats that have been infected and have offspring. The likelihood of pregnant women contracting the Chlamydia pathogen through contact with sheep and goats increases the zoonotic importance of the disease. There are few reports documenting antibiotic resistance in Chlamydiae. Furthermore, there are no examples of natural or permanent antibiotic resistance in strains that cause disease in humans. In some strains, the detected antibiotic resistance cannot be identified in vitro, which hinders the recognition and interpretation of antibiotic resistance.

Generally, the approximate pH of honey is 4.0 (Ouchemoukh et al., 2007). Several physicochemical properties show the differences in the chemical composition of honey (Bogdanov et al., 1999), and its sensorial, chemical, physical, and microbiological characteristics are investigated to determine its quality. The main criteria are moisture content, ash content, electrical conductivity, diastase activity, free acidity, 5-hydroxymethyl furfuraldehyde (HMF) content, and reducing and non-reducing sugars (Gomes et al., 2010). Honey production has developed well in Turkey thanks to its geographical and climatic conditions. As an important agricultural activity, the beekeeping has a history of thousands of years in Turkey (Kahraman et al., 2010). The Black Sea Region ranks the first in terms of production. In 2016, 1,786,996 tons of honey was produced globally and Turkey ranked the second after China with 105,532 tons (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2020). Turkey has favorable conditions for honey production like climate, topographical structure, and a wide variety of plant flora (Gül & Pehlivan, 2018;Sari & Ayyildiz, 2012;Tezcan et al., 2011). The appearance, nutritional value, composition, and flavor of honey are affected by its botanical origins and the geographic location of beehives (Gül & Pehlivan, 2018;Tezcan et al., 2011).The composition of honey can vary depending on its origin. For example, the mineral sources primarily originate from its raw materials (nectar and honeydew) and the pollen grains (Madejczyk & Baralkiewicz, 2008;Pohl et al., 2011). Carbohydrates (glucose and fructose) account for about 80-95% of the matrix, while the total mineral content in honey should not exceed 1%. The second most important content in honey is water, and its ratio depends on several environmental factors during production such as weather and humidity (Alvarez-Suarez et al., 2010;Bogdanov et al., 2008). Besides, water content affects the basic physical characteristics of honey, such as viscosity, maturity, and crystallization (Machado De-Melo et al., 2018). Viscosity of ripe honey is higher, with water content of below 22%, leading to non growth of microorganisms and longer shelf life of ripe honey (Aparna & Rajalakshmi, 1999), and significantly improving the re-ripe honey market acceptance and increasing the beekeepers' profit given the the production rate (Guo et al., 2019). It is known that fermentation is another factor that affects the honey composition when moisture exceeds 18%, especially after a long storage time (Bogdanov et al., 2008). Proteins, minerals, enzymes, vitamins, organic acids, and phenolic compounds are minor components of honey (Pohl et al., 2011). Protein, enzyme, and vitamin contents of honey are obtained from the