Antimicrobial use in food animals selects for antimicrobial resistance in bacteria, which can spread to people. Reducing use of antimicrobials-particularly those deemed to be critically important for human medicine-in food production animals continues to be an important step for preserving the benefits of these antimicrobials for people. The World Health Organization ranking of antimicrobials according to their relative importance in human medicine was recently updated. Antimicrobials considered the highest priority among the critically important antimicrobials were quinolones, third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins, macrolides and ketolides, and glycopeptides. The updated ranking allows stakeholders in the agriculture sector and regulatory agencies to focus risk management efforts on drugs used in food animals that are the most important to human medicine. In particular, the current large-scale use of fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and third-generation cephalosporins and any potential use of glycopeptides and carbapenems need to be addressed urgently.

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For a continuous process using maltotetraose (G.,)-forming amylase in a membrane recycle bioreactor (MRB), the enzyme was partially purified to specific activity 21.5 lU/mg protein. The enzyme was stable enough to convert starch into G4 in batch and MRB systems. Optimum conditions in the MRB using hollow fiber with 1,000 molecular weight cut-off were: substrate concentration 1.0% (w/v), enzyme concentration 70 lU/L reactant, and residence time 83 min. Productivity at steady state under optimized conditions was 0.99 g&&r. Excessive residence time decreased product purity by further conversion of G4 to lower molecular weight compounds due to endo-acting activity of the enzyme.

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