This paper provides a critical review of``Defensible Space'' (Newman, 1973) and traces the development of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) in America and Canada, and Secured By Design (SBD) initiatives in the UK. It is argued that various aspects of the theory have avoided consideration and require further investigation and research. It is opined that``defensible space'' is the theoretical foundation to both CPTED and SBD and it is posited that a thorough re-examination of Newman's ideas will serve to deepen our understanding of the complex relationship between the built environment and crime. British (BS8220) and European (CEN TC/325) Standards relating to urban planning and environmental design and crime reduction are currently receiving detailed deliberation and are based firmly upon Newman's ideas. The projected need for some 4.4 million new homes in Britain (DOE, 1995) by 2016 and Lord Roger's call for improvements in urban design to reduce suburban migration from cities (DETR, 1999) reiterates the importance of the subject matter. This paper (the first of two) recognises that design per se does not represent the panacea for reducing criminogeneity, rather, that``defensible space'' CPTED and SBD should be considered as crime prevention strategies, which can, in common with all other initiatives, contribute to tackling the problem of residential crime. In conclusion, it is argued that further research concerning how``defensible space'' is perceived by various crucial stakeholders in society is the way forward in this regard. A second, forthcoming paper (PM, Vol. 19 No. 3) will present these research findings.The research register for this journal is available at

The first paper, entitled “Crime and the design of residential property: exploring the theoretical background” (Property Management, Vol. 19 No. 2), has argued that “perceptions” and the “image” of housing designs remain a largely untested avenue of investigation in the design‐effects‐crime debate. Presents and discusses exploratory research into the perception of crime/deviancy, fear of crime and “defensible space”, in relation to a range of characteristic UK housing designs. This investigation concerns the perceptions of planning professionals, convicted burglars and other users and provides both qualitative and quantitative analysis of results from a series of interviews which presented slide representations of terraced, semi‐detached and detached housing designs in addition to low‐rise/walk‐up flats and high‐rise flats. Where possible, two contrasting versions of the same design were presented to probe the influence of “image” in the perception of crime and “defensible space”. The results from this exploratory investigation underpin Newman’s theory of “defensible space” in that a “hierarchy of place” appears to exist with regard to housing designs. However, the “image” of each design is perceived to be a significant contributing factor in relation to the criminogenic capacity of each design presented. Wilson and Kelling’s “Broken Windows” theory is also supported by these research findings.

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This paper discusses the crime-specific problems that may arise with regard to potential solutions that have been provided to achieve the projected housing need of 4.4 million new homes by 2016. The development of``brownfield'' land in this regard is briefly discussed and the urban-rural housing dilemma raised. Central to this paper is the issue of the criminogenic capacity of new-built housing designs, which, it is contended, has been largely ignored. The Social Exclusion Unit's report entitled Bringing Britain Together: A National Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal has highlighted the problems experienced on 3,000 run-down neighbourhoods in England and it is posited that lessons can be learned by analysing why such designs failed. In recent years, the concept of``sustainable development'' has been adopted enthusiastically by town planners, surveyors, urban designers and environmentalists. However, the social malaise of crime has been largely ignored within this concept. The creation of`u nsustainable'' housing estates such as those discussed in the above report, are testament to the potential problems that can arise in the design, siting and tenant-allocation policies that may be applied to new-build housing developments. Oscar Newman's``defensible space'' theory (1973) is discussed, with particular reference to two of his concepts that have not been extensively discussed within criminology, let alone within the echelons of town planning. The``image'' and`g eographical juxtaposition'' of new-build housing represent important elements to Newman's theory, which has only been studied in relation to modifications to existing designs. New-build developments provide the opportunity to evaluate empirically certain designs and contribute towards a broadening of our understanding of the criminogenic capacity of residential housing design.

The perceptions of various crucial stakeholders in urban Britain, relating to the criminogenic capacity of a range of characteristic housing designs, are explored. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is an increasingly popular crime reduction strategy, based primarily upon Newman's 'defensible space' theory. However, this theory remains largely untested, and ndings have been contradictory. CPTED responses are often based upon recorded crime statistics and this research challenges the use of such data in isolation. First, such data are empirically awed and persistently misrepresent the reality of crime, and second, the recorded crime statistics are inappropriate for geographical comparisons at the micro scale. This culturally speci c investigation seeks to explore the perceptions of three crucial user groups. The perceptions of town planners, police of cers and convicted burglars are investigated with regard to various characteristic housing designs in Cardiff, Wales, to discover whether a commonality or plurality of perspectives exists. The ways in which different user groups perceive housing design can provide a framework for modifying future designs and may also have implications for housing allocation policies, policing and the layout of cities.