Several antibiotics are known for their ability to accumulate in neutrophils and thereby modulate the antimicrobial functions of those cells. This study demonstrates for the first time that an antibiotic, namely the fluoroquinolone enrofloxacin, enhances the formation of bovine neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Pharmacologically inactivated NADPH oxidase or peptidyl-arginine deiminase-4 distinctly reduced enrofloxacin-induced NET formation. Additionally, when cells were treated with cytochalasin D or nocodazole, the enrofloxacin-mediated NET induction was abolished, indicating that besides oxidative burst and histone citrullination also actin and microtubule polymerization are involved in this process.

Guarea kunthiana is used in folk remedies for the treatment of several diseases including microbial infections. The mechanism behind this phenomenon still needs to be elucidated. Here, we investigated the effect of G. kunthiana bark extract on antimicrobial functions of human and bovine neutrophils as the first line of defense against infections. For this aim, neutrophils were isolated from either human or bovine blood and treated with G. kunthiana bark extract. The antimicrobial activity of the neutrophils against Staphylococcus (S.) aureus and Escherichia (E.) coli was tested in a bacterial survival assay and a fluorescence-based phagocytosis assay. Furthermore, the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) was visualized by immunofluorescence microscopy. We show that neutrophils treated with G. kunthiana extract distinctly increased phagocytosis of S. aureus or E. coli. Interestingly, we demonstrate that G. kunthiana bark extract induces the formation of NETs in both cell types. This effect was abolished when treating the cells with diphenyleniodonium chloride (DPI) pointing to a direct implication of the NADPH oxidase-dependent formation of reactive oxygen species in this process. In summary, our data strongly suggest that G. kunthiana bark extract boosts the antimicrobial activities of neutrophils as the first line of defense against invading pathogens.

Out of 92 donkeys examined for gastrointestinal parasites, 90 animals were found infected by one or more gastrointestinal parasites with an overall prevalence rate of 97.78%. The distributions of the recovered parasites in the different parts of the body were as follows: stomach, 92.4%, small intestine, 19.6%, caecum, 88%, colon, 80.4%, rectum, 73.9%, and cranial mesenteric artery, 64.1%. A significant difference was found between mean parasite counts and seasons. Hot wet season had higher mean parasites count (5411.5 ± 1694.4) in comparison with hot dry (1795.9 ± 399.6) and cool dry (1719.9 ± 522.4) seasons. Although there was no significant difference between age and mean parasite count, animals more than four years old had high mean count (3361.3 ± 921.8) in comparison with 2330 ± 744.3 and 2030.2 ± 873.1 for young and adults animals, respectively. No significant positive or negative correlation was found between total parasite counts of infected animals and any of the climatic factors. The parasites identified were Habronema spp. (40.2%), Trichostrongylus axei (30.4%), Parascaris equorum (18.5%), Anoplocephala perfoliata (4.35%), Gastrodiscus aegyptiacus (8.7%), large strongyles (84%), small strongyles (72%), and Oxyuris equi (1.1%).

The effect of storage conditions on the stability of albendazole and oxytetracycline veterinary products marketed in Sudan was evaluated.Stability of Albendazole suspension and Oxytetracycline injectable solution has been investigated under two different storage conditions, according to the ICH guidelines for the drug stability testing.The change in colour (using visual inspection), pH value (using pH meter) and the degradation process by an HPLC method, was monitored at different time points. Investigated drugs were stored in two different stores. The first one (A) is equipped with controlled temperature and humidity control systems. The second one (B) was a veterinary pharmacy selected randomly from East Nile locality. The temperature and humidity in the stores A and B were monitored and recorded daily using hygrometer for I year.At the beginning of the study all products were proved to be compatible with the recommendations of the manufacturers. There was no change in the colour of albendazole during the nine months at both stores. The pH values in the first store expressed noticeable reduction, although it is still within the recommended range. Following nine months storage the drug content of albendazole was reduced below the recommended level. In the second store (B), there was no change in the colour of both albendazole products tested. There was considerable change in pH value during the nine months storage, but still it is within the recommended level. The active pharmaceutical ingredient concentration (assay %), of albendazole fell below the recommended level (USP) following storage for nine months.In the first store (A), the two oxytetracycline products expressed no change in colour and there was slight reduction in pH level (but still within the recommended level) within the six months storage period. The experiment was terminated just after six months due to the reduction of the active ingredient concentration (assay %) below the recommended level. In the second store (B), there is only change in the colour in one of the products following six months storage. pH level also here expressed moderate reduction, but still in the recommended range. The concentration (assay %), of oxytetracycline expressed prominent reduction following storage for six months.The obtained results are of interest for stability studies and/or quality control purposes of Albendazole and Oxytetracycline commercial products. Here we could conclude that, the two veterinary drugs evaluated in this study (albendazole and oxytetracycline) proved to be unstable under environmental conditions in veterinary pharmacies in Khartoum state, Sudan.

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