[] One branch of computer-based instruction (CBI) that has become increasingly popular in recent years is Web-based instruction (WBI). While providing valuable and arguably most powerful resources to education (Fetterman, 1998), WBI, or CBI in general puts an increasingly heavier burden on individual learners' motivation and capability to be responsible for their own learning processes and outcomes (Owston, 1997;Santiago & Okey, 1992). The present investigation examined relationships among several motivation and learning-related variables in Web-based learning. In particular, it focused on the effects of various self-efficacy perceptions on learning outcomes of WBI. SELF-EFFICACY IN ACADEMIC LEARNINGAcademic self-efficacy refers to one's convictions to perform successfully at designated levels (Schunk, 1991). Ample evidence accrued during the past two decades demonstrates the strong and positive influence of efficacy beliefs on various aspects of student motivation and achievement (e.g., Bandura & Schunk, 1981;Betz & Hackett, 1981;Pajares & Miller, 1994;Pintrich & De Groot, 1990;Schunk, 1982Schunk, , 1983Schunk, , 1984Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Pons, 1992; see also Pajares, 1996, for a review and Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991, for a meta-analysis). Schunk's (e.g., 1982Schunk's (e.g., , 1983Schunk's (e.g., , 1984 series of experiments, for example, documented that as students" self-efficacy perceptions strengthened, their performance also noticeably improved. Pintrich and De Groot (1990) reported that academic self-efficacy beliefs positively related to intrinsic value and cognitive and self-regulatory strategy use, and negatively correlated with test anxiety. Self-efficacy also positively correlated to various outcome measures such as grades, seatwork performances, scores on exams and quizzes, and quality of essays and reports.Not only does academic self-efficacy influence learning and performance, self-efficacy for self-regulated learning also relates to performance through its direct link to academic selfefficacy and goal setting. Self-efficacy for self-regulated learning refers to students' perceived capability to use a variety of self-regulated learning strategies such as self-monitoring, self-evaluation, goal setting and planning, selfconsequences, and environmental restructuring (Zimmerman et al., 1992;Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1988). Zimmerman et al. observed that self-efficacy for self-regulated learning positively related to self-efficacy for academic achievement, which in turn positively linked to students' grade goals and final grades. Likewise, Zimmerman and Bandura (1994) reported that self-regulatory efficacy for writing positively related to self-evaluative standards and self-efficacy for academic achievement, both of which demonstrated positive relations with grade goals students set for themselves in a college writing course. The latter three variables predicted students' final course grades. SELF-EFFICACY IN COMPUTER-BASED INSTRUCTIONOne might wonder whether the strong and positive effect...

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This scoping review summarizes studies on passive participation in collaborative online learning activities that used computer-mediated communication tools in school settings. A total of 42 articles spanning about 20 years were explored. ERIC and three main journal indexes from Web of Science were used to locate articles. For each year searched, there were only one to five studies that investigated passive participation, indicating that not many researchers have examined this topic in general. Most studies used mixed methods and were conducted in higher education settings in asynchronous online discussions. Three terms have been used to discuss the notion of passive participation: lurking for read-only behavior, legitimate peripheral participation for low contribution, and free riding for no contribution. Studies on passive participation have mainly explored four topical areas: motivational factors and reasons, participation types and behavioral patterns, effect on learning outcomes, and pedagogical strategies for de-lurking. Most studies have investigated passive participation as one of the behavior patterns among various types of participation. A few studies have solely examined read-only behaviors. The notion of passive participation varies among researchers and should therefore be redefined. Overall, there have been few studies on the topic of passive participation and those that have been conducted reveal some inconsistencies in their findings, indicating the topic requires further investigation. Future studies on this topic are urgently needed due to the forced shift to online courses precipitated by the pandemic. While instructors are also responsible for supporting their learners in this unprecedented context, researchers should investigate ways to help instructors better understand passive participants and encourage active learner participation in collaborative online learning space.

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