As manta rays face increased threats from targeted and bycatch fisheries, manta ray watching tourism, if managed properly, may present an attractive economic alternative to consumptive use of these species. Both species in the genus Manta (Manta alfredi and Manta birostris) are classified by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List as species Vulnerable to extinction in the wild, and are considered unsustainable as fisheries resources due to their conservative life history characteristics, which considerably reduce their ability to recover population numbers when depleted. Utilising dive operator surveys, Internet research, and a literature review, this study provides the first global estimate of the direct economic impact of manta ray watching tourism and examines the potential socio-economic benefits of non-consumptive manta ray watching operations relative to consumptive use of manta rays as a fishery resource. In the 23 countries in which manta ray watching operations meeting our criteria were identified, we estimated direct revenue to dive operators from manta ray dives and snorkels at over US$73 million annually and direct economic impact, including associated tourism expenditures, of US$140 million annually. Ten countries account for almost 93% of the global revenue estimate, specifically Japan, Indonesia, the Maldives, Mozambique, Thailand, Australia, Mexico, United States, Federated States of Micronesia and Palau. In many of the areas where directed fisheries for manta rays are known to occur, these activities overlap with manta ray tourism sites or the migratory range of the mantas on which these sites depend, and are likely to be unsustainable and detrimental to manta ray watching tourism.

Shore-based shark fishing in Florida is rarely monitored as it largely occurs at night on remote beaches and has received a questionable reputation after recent exposure of illegal activity. While these events have led to calls for better management and enforcement, the characteristics of the fishery itself remain largely unknown. Our study, therefore, provides the first comprehensive profile of the Florida shore-based shark fishery to inform fisheries management and conservation. We distributed an online survey to all Florida Fish and Wildlife shore-based shark fishing permit holders to gather data on angler sociodemographics, fishing preferences, habits, motivations, and perceptions of shark conservation. We identified three angler typologies that differed primarily by shark fishing experience and frequency: (1) experienced infrequent anglers, (2) skilled frequent anglers, and (3) novice infrequent anglers. Our results revealed that the Florida recreational shore-based shark fishery itself has increased in participation fivefold since 2010 and generates approximately US$7.8 million (95% CI = $7.2-8.5 million) annually in equipment expenditures and $34.3 million ($30.4-38.1 million) annually in fishing trips. Surveyed anglers caught a total of 9,617 sharks within a 12-month period, averaging 11 sharks/angler, and the most preferred target species was the Blacktip Shark Carcharhinus limbatus. Angler motivations for participating in this fishery were grouped into the following categories: leisure and well-being, experience of the catch, and consumption. Perceptions of shark conservation and management were generally positive; however, many anglers did not believe that recreational fishing negatively impacts shark populations. Most anglers expressed a desire to learn more about handling practices that benefited sharks, which may help managers implement more educational opportunities and communication efforts. Understanding the characteristics and perspectives of anglers from the shore-based shark fishery in Florida is crucial for highlighting potential management pathways and estimating angler acceptance of management.

IntroductionShore-based shark fishing in Florida is a relatively low-cost and easy-access fishery which attracts a wide variety of experienced and inexperienced anglers leading to concerns about proper handling methods of captured fish that are released either voluntarily or to comply with regulations. Proper handling methods can help reduce post-release mortality among sharks, many of which are threatened with extinction. Therefore, we considered proper handling methods as a pro-environmental behavior, which has been linked with the use of different information channels to increase conservation knowledge.MethodsWe used data from an online questionnaire to understand where anglers of this fishery obtain information about fishing skills with a particular focus on fish handling techniques and best practices for catch-and-release. Then we included their main information channels in a series of hierarchical regression models with perceived conservation knowledge and support for fishery management to explain pro-environmental behavior regarding shark conservation.ResultsWe found that most anglers learned about shore-based shark fishing through interpersonal communications with friends and family, but typically use the internet to learn more about fishing skills. While information channel use was not significantly associated with pro-environmental behavior, it was significantly associated with support for fisheries management, which in turn was associated with pro-environmental behavior among respondents.DiscussionThese findings can inform public educational outreach efforts to spread awareness of proper handling techniques and reduce instances of post-release mortality in sharks.

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