Literacy and numeracy are correlated throughout development and require many of the same underlying cognitive skills. We explored the predictors of literacy and numeracy and their covariance (overlap between the two skills) in rural Côte d’Ivoire. Many Ivorian children are old for their grade due to late enrollment and grade repetition, leading to variation in age-for-grade (i.e., how far a child’s age differs from official age for a given grade). Structural equation models were used to examine how cognitive components and individual-level factors predict literacy and numeracy covariance. Phonological awareness, numerical magnitude, ordinality, working memory, and inhibitory control were cognitive predictors of covariance. Additionally, age was positively related to covariance and age-for-grade was negatively related to covariance. Post-hoc multi-group modelling revealed literacy and numeracy covariance was significant for the on-time group (students in the correct grade based on official age) but not the late group (students in a lower grade). Our results suggest that literacy and numeracy covariance depend on the maturity of underlying cognitive components.

Executive Functions (EF; inhibitory control [IC], cognitive flexibility [CF] and working memory [WM]) mediate the relationship between socioeconomic status and reading. However, little is known of the roles of individual EF components in mediating the socioeconomic-reading achievement gap, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In Côte d’Ivoire, children experience many socioeconomic disadvantages (i.e., fewer household resources, maternal illiteracy), and kinship fostering (child in care of extended family while parents pursue economic opportunities elsewhere) is prevalent. This study examines the relation between EF components, socioeconomic risks, and reading among 5th grade children in rural Côte d’Ivoire (N=369). Poorer WM mediated the relationship between higher cumulative socioeconomic risk (poverty, maternal illiteracy, fostering) and lower reading scores. Further, WM fully mediated the negative effects of fostering risk on reading scores. Results suggest that EF components are differentially impacted by environmental socioeconomic risks and play different roles in supporting reading development.