Aluminum-containing adjuvants are widely used in preventive vaccines against infectious diseases and in preparations for allergy immunotherapy. The mechanism by which they enhance the immune response remains poorly understood. Aluminum adjuvants selectively stimulate a Th2 immune response upon injection of mice and a mixed response in human beings. They support activation of CD8 T cells, but these cells do not undergo terminal differentiation to cytotoxic T cells. Adsorption of antigens to aluminum adjuvants enhances the immune response by facilitating phagocytosis and slowing the diffusion of antigens from the injection site which allows time for inflammatory cells to accumulate. The adsorptive strength is important as high affinity interactions interfere with the immune response. Adsorption can also affect the physical and chemical stability of antigens. Aluminum adjuvants activate dendritic cells via direct and indirect mechanisms. Phagocytosis of aluminum adjuvants followed by disruption of the phagolysosome activates NLRP3-inflammasomes resulting in the release of active IL-1β and IL-18. Aluminum adjuvants also activate dendritic cells by binding to membrane lipid rafts. Injection of aluminum-adjuvanted vaccines causes the release of uric acid, DNA, and ATP from damaged cells which in turn activate dendritic cells. The use of aluminum adjuvant is limited by weak stimulation of cell-mediated immunity. This can be enhanced by addition of other immunomodulatory molecules. Adsorption of these molecules is determined by the same mechanisms that control adsorption of antigens and can affect the efficacy of such combination adjuvants. The widespread use of aluminum adjuvants can be attributed in part to the excellent safety record based on a 70-year history of use. They cause local inflammation at the injection site, but also reduce the severity of systemic and local reactions by binding biologically active molecules in vaccines.

Aluminum-containing adjuvants have been used for over 90 years to enhance the immune response to vaccines. Recent work has significantly advanced our understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of these adjuvants, offering key insights on underlying mechanisms. Given the long-term success of aluminum adjuvants, we believe that they should continue to represent the “gold standard” against which all new adjuvants should be compared. New vaccine candidates that require adjuvants to induce a protective immune responses should first be evaluated with aluminum adjuvants before other more experimental approaches are considered, since use of established adjuvants would facilitate both clinical development and the regulatory pathway. However, the continued use of aluminum adjuvants requires an appreciation of their complexities, in combination with access to the necessary expertise to optimize vaccine formulations. In this article, we will review the properties of aluminum adjuvants and highlight those elements that are critical to optimize vaccine performance. We will discuss how other components (excipients, TLR ligands, etc.) can affect the interaction between adjuvants and antigens, and impact the potency of vaccines. This review provides a resource and guide, which will ultimately contribute to the successful development of newer, more effective and safer vaccines.

Homologues of the SHARPIN (SHANK-associated RH domain-interacting protein) gene have been identified in the human, rat and mouse genomes. SHARPIN and its homologues are expressed in many tissues. SHARPIN protein forms homodimers and associates with SHANK in the post-synaptic density of excitatory neurotransmitters in the brain. SHARPIN is hypothesized to have roles in the crosslinking of SHANK proteins and in enteric nervous system function. We demonstrate that two independently arising spontaneous mutations in the mouse Sharpin gene, cpdm and cpdm Dem , cause a chronic proliferative dermatitis phenotype, which is characterized histologically by severe inflammation, eosinophilic dermatitis and defects in secondary lymphoid organ development. These are the first examples of disease-causing mutations in the Sharpin gene and demonstrate the importance of SHARPIN protein in normal immune development and control of inflammation.

Aluminum-containing adjuvants are an important component of many vaccines because they safely potentiate the immune response. The structure and properties of aluminum hydroxide adjuvant, aluminum phosphate adjuvant and alum-precipitated adjuvants are presented in this review. The major antigen adsorption mechanisms, electrostatic attraction and ligand exchange, are related to the adjuvant structure. The manner by which aluminum-containing adjuvants potentiate the immune response is related to the structure, properties of the adjuvant and adsorption mechanism. Immunopotentiation occurs through the following sequential steps: inflammation and recruitment of antigen-presenting cells, retention of antigen at the injection site, uptake of antigen, dendritic cell maturation, T-cell activation and T-cell differentiation.

Apolipoprotein E3-Leiden (APOE*3-Leiden) transgenic mice have been used to study the effect of different cholesterol-containing diets on the remnant lipoprotein levels and composition and on the possible concurrent development of atherosclerotic plaques. On high fat/cholesterol (HFC) diet, the high expressing lines 2 and 181 developed severe hypercholesterolemia (up to 40 and 60 mmol/liter, respectively), whereas triglyceride levels remained almost normal when compared with regular mouse diet. The addition of cholate increased the hypercholesterolemic effect of this diet. In lines 2 and 181, serum levels of apo E3-Leiden also increased dramatically upon cholesterol feeding (up to 107 and 300 mg/dl, respectively). In these high expressing APOE*3-Leiden transgenic mice, the increase in both serum cholesterol and apo E3-Leiden occurred mainly in the VLDL /LDL-sized fractions, whereas a considerable increase in large, apo E-rich HDL particles also occurred. In contrast to the high expressing lines, the low expressing line 195 reacted only mildly upon HFC diet.On HFC diets, the high expresser APOE*3-Leiden mice developed atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic arch, the descending aorta, and the carotid arteries, varying from fatty streaks containing foam cells to severe atherosclerotic plaques containing cholesterol crystals, fibrosis, and necrotic calcified tissue. Quantitative evaluation revealed that the atherogenesis is positively correlated with the serum level of cholesterol-rich VLDL/LDL particles. In conclusion, with APOE*3-Leiden transgenic mice, factors can be studied that influence the metabolism of remnant VLDL and the development of atherosclerosis. (J.