Concepts from the Threat Appraisal and Coping Theory, Precarious Manhood Theory, and Ambivalent Sexism suggest that U.S. Latino men who perceive social discrimination and powerlessness may respond with machismo beliefs that serve as coping responses to empower themselves and reassert their manhood. Machismo beliefs include both aggressive “traditional machismo” and gentlemanly family-focused “caballerismo.” Because past research has revealed that individuals respond to social abuse with anger, prompting them to feel empowered but less empathetic, we hypothesized that Latino men who perceive social discrimination combined with a sense of powerlessness would report more traditional machismo and less caballerismo. We also hypothesized that this three-variable sequence would be stronger for men with high rather than low in Latino identity, since discrimination would be a more personal threat to their identity and manhood. Participants included 1,530 U.S. Latinos who completed online surveys to report demographics (age, education, employment, sexual orientation, partner status, household size), perceived social discrimination, powerlessness, traditional machismo, caballerismo, and Latino identity. Mediational analyses confirmed the three-variable sequence in which powerlessness mediated associations between social discrimination and (more) aggressive machismo, and (less) gentlemanly caballerismo. Also as hypothesized, moderated mediational analysis revealed that these three-variable sequences were stronger for men with high rather than low Latino identity. With recent increases in social discrimination against U.S. Latinos, present results caution that men may respond to these challenges with increased aggressive patterns of traditional machismo.

Masculinity is strictly a cultural concept. Each society interprets and applies arbitrary gender definitions differently.This study will make a distinction between cultural masculinity and biological maleness. Gender disparity, he will argue, is deeply rooted in the Judeo-Christian tradition and remains the basis for feminine and masculine gender stereotypes in Spanish speaking Latin America. Mary, as virgin and mother, represents the sole role model for Hispanic women, while the male identity will be traced to Adam, Joseph and Catholic priesthood with the church as ultimate wedded partner. In addition, the Spanish conquest influenced male gender identity in Latin America. The small physique of the indigenous peoples of Latin America, combined with the loss of land to the Spaniards questioned the social identity of the male. In order to compensate for their military inferiority and physical weakness, indigenous males developed an elaborate system of masculine behaviors, in short machismo.Simultaneously, the acceptance of Catholic doctrines replaced the natural biology of men and women. This study will analyze the social impact of Hispanic gender identity as interaction between Spanish conquest and Catholic doctrine.

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