Oakmoss is a natural fragrance ingredient exhibiting highly specific, potent antibacterial activity against Legionella pneumophila, a causative agent of severe water-bone pneumonia. In the present study, the antibacterial activity of individual compounds isolated from oakmoss was investigated against L. pneumophila and other Legionella spp. A total of 18 known compounds and two minor novel compounds (i.e., 3-methoxy-5-methylphenyl-2,4-dihydroxy-6-methylbenzoate (compound 9) and 8-(2,4-dihydroxy-6-(2-oxoheptyl)-phenoxy)-6-hydroxy-3-pentyl-1H-isochromen-1-one (compound 20)) were purified from oakmoss. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against clinical and environmental isolates of L. pneumophila, L. bozemanii, L. micdadei, L. longbeachae, and L. dumoffii for 11 of the 20 compounds were less than 100 µg/mL (range 0.8-64.0 µg/mL). Novel compounds 9 and 20 exhibited potent antibacterial activity against L. pneumophila strains (MIC ranges of 1.3-8.0 µg/mL and 3.3-13.3 µg/mL, respectively) and also against four other Legionella species (MIC ranges of 0.8-8.0 µg/mL and 3.3-21.3 µg/mL, respectively). Time-kill assays indicated that compounds 9 and 20 kill bacteria at a concentration equivalent to 2 MIC after 1 h and 6 h co-incubations, respectively. While oakmoss and the purified components exhibited antibacterial activity against Legionella spp., they were not active against other Gram-negative and -positive bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus.

The purpose of this study was to assess the antimicrobial activity of a solid dispersion prepared by mixing and grinding hinokitiol (HT) with α-cyclodextrin (αCD), β-cyclodextrin (βCD), or γ-cyclodextrin (γCD). Antimicrobial activity was evaluated by calculating the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and evaluating the change in the number of bacteria over time. The test microbes used were two Gram-positive bacteria ( Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus ), two Gram-negative bacteria ( Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ), and two fungi ( Candida albicans and Aspergillus brasiliensis ). Calculation of the MIC value of HT using the agar dilution method revealed that the MIC of HT/CD inclusion complexes was lower than that of HT alone. HT irreversibly inhibited the growth of microorganisms in a short amount of time. HT/CD complexes retained the antimicrobial activity of HT as a result of including HT in a CD complex. These results suggest that inclusion of HT, an antimicrobial component, using CDs could lead to appropriate control of the drug release rate and efficient display of antimicrobial activity.

In the current study we investigated the antibacterial activity of fragrance ingredients against Legionella pneumophila, a causative agent of severe pneumonia. Among the 41 different fragrance ingredients tested, we found that the natural fragrance ingredients oakmoss (OM) and birch tar oil (BT), which contain many components, exhibit potent antibacterial activity. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC, % (v/v)) of OM and BT were 0.0020 and 0.0024, respectively and were lower than that of cinnamic aldehyde (0.0078), which has been previously shown to possess high antimicrobial activity. In a time-kill assay of OM and BT at MIC and two times MIC, the colony forming units (CFU) of the microbe were reduced to between 10 ؊ ؊3 to 10 ؊ ؊4 of the original CFU after 1 h co-incubation. After this time, the CFU gradually decreased in number, but remained above detection levels even after a 48-h co-incubation, except for BT at two times MIC. In contrast, at a concentration of 0.1% OM and BT (approximately 50 times MIC), CFU were not detected after co-incubation for 1 h. Another 18 fragrance ingredients including ketone, aldehyde, lactone, acid, phenol derivative, aliphatic alcohol and quinoline also exhibited a lesser degree of antibacterial activity against L. pneumophila at a MIC of less than 0.10.

Oakmoss and its components are known as antibacterial agents, specifically against Legionella pneumophila. In the present study, we investigated the effects of oakmoss and its components (phenol, didepside and isochromen derivatives) on L. pneumophila biofilm formation, with particular reference to the bactericidal activity (minimum bactericidal concentration; MBC) of these components against the bacterial cells in the biofilm. Of the 20 compounds tested, two didepside derivatives and four phenol derivatives reduced biofilm formation by more than 50% of that observed for the control at their respective minimum inhibitory concentrations (1/2×MIC). The inhibitory activities of these compounds were either equivalent to or greater than that of the clarithromycin reference. Isochromen derivatives had no effect on biofilm formation. Analysis of bactericidal activity of didepside and isochromen derivatives revealed that three of four didepside derivatives and one of four isochromen derivatives exhibited high bactericidal activity (MBC: 32.0-74.7 µg/mL) against the L. pneumophila in the biofilm after 24 h or 48 h of co-incubation; the antibacterial activities of these compounds were almost equivalent to clarithromycin and chlorhexidine gluconate (MBC: 42.7-64.0 µg/ mL) that were used as references. Thus, based on their anti-biofilm forming and bactericidal activities, didepside derivatives are considered to be good candidates for disinfectants against L. pneumophila.

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