BackgroundParticulate matter (PM) pollutant exposure, which induces oxidative stress and inflammation, and vitamin D insufficiency, which compromises immune regulation, are detrimental in asthma.ObjectivesMechanistic cell culture experiments were undertaken to ascertain whether vitamin D abrogates PM-induced inflammatory responses of human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) through enhancement of antioxidant pathways.MethodsTranscriptome analysis, PCR and ELISA were undertaken to delineate markers of inflammation and oxidative stress; with comparison of expression in primary HBECs from healthy and asthmatic donors cultured with reference urban PM in the presence/absence of vitamin D.ResultsTranscriptome analysis identified over 500 genes significantly perturbed by PM-stimulation, including multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines. Vitamin D altered expression of a subset of these PM-induced genes, including suppressing IL6. Addition of vitamin D suppressed PM-stimulated IL-6 production, although to significantly greater extent in healthy versus asthmatic donor cultures. Vitamin D also differentially affected PM-stimulated GM-CSF, with suppression in healthy HBECs and enhancement in asthmatic cultures. Vitamin D increased HBEC expression of the antioxidant pathway gene G6PD, increased the ratio of reduced to oxidised glutathione, and in PM-stimulated cultures decreased the formation of 8-isoprostane. Pre-treatment with vitamin D decreased CXCL8 and further decreased IL-6 production in PM-stimulated cultures, an effect abrogated by inhibition of G6PD with DHEA, supporting a role for this pathway in the anti-inflammatory actions of vitamin D.ConclusionsIn a study using HBECs from 18 donors, vitamin D enhanced HBEC antioxidant responses and modulated the immune response to PM, suggesting that vitamin D may protect the airways from pathological pollution-induced inflammation.

Urban particulate matter (UPM) exacerbates asthmatic lung inflammation and depresses lung immunity. Lung dendritic cells (DCs) react to airway particulates, and have a critical role in linking innate and adaptive immunity, but the direct effects of UPM on DCs, that have been activated by granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), a product of stimulated normal human bronchial epithelial cells, has not been investigated. Human blood CD1c(+) DCs were purified and activated with UPM in the presence or absence of GM-CSF with and without LPS, and DC maturation was assessed by flow cytometry. DC stimulatory capacity and priming of 5-(and -6)-carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester-labeled naive CD4 T cells was investigated using the allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reaction. T cell proliferation and effector function were assessed using flow cytometry and secreted cytokines were measured by combined bead array. UPM enhanced DC maturation in an LPS-independent manner. DCs activated by UPM plus GM-CSF (UPM + GM-CSF DCs) induced higher naive CD4 T cell proliferation in the allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reaction than DCs pretreated by GM-CSF alone (GM-CSF DCs), and elicited both substantially lower levels of IFN-γ, IL-13, and IL-5 secretion, and lower frequencies of alloantigen-specific T helper (Th) type 1 effector cells than naive CD4 T cells primed by GM-CSF DCs. UPM-stimulated DCs produced IL-6 and TNF-α. Neutralization of IL-6 decreased naive CD4 T cell proliferation stimulated by UPM + GM-CSF DCs, and significantly increased the frequency of alloantigen-specific Th1 effector cells, but did not reverse UPM-induced inhibition of IFN-γ secretion. We conclude that UPM enhances GM-CSF-induced DC maturation and stimulatory capacity, but inhibits the generation of Th1 cells. Thus, UPM exposure may impair Th1 responses to pulmonary pathogens.