This article explores the political dynamics of labor migration in the Middle East. It seeks to explain the politics of Arab population movements by looking at historical trends in regional integration and contends that migration to the oil-rich countries, including refugee flows, has been the key factor driving Arab integration in the absence of effective institutions and economic integration processes. To account for the influence of this largely forgotten factor, the article looks at the formal and informal institutions that have shaped massive labor flows from the 1970s onward. It offers historical evidence pointing to the role of migration in Arab regional integration by looking at free circulation of Eritrean refugees and migrants in the Arab region using oral history and administrative archives. Linking labor migration, refugee movements, and regional politics, the article introduces the concept of "migration diplomacy" as an analytical framework and argues that the politics of regional integration can be better understood when looked at through the lens of migration.
Cet article explore la gestion des migrations dans les monarchies du Golfe depuis les années 1930. Il décrit les dynamiques d’importation de main d’œuvre et les politiques d’immigration en soulignant la nature hybride et transnationale de la gestion des migrations. Les flux migratoires et les vies des migrants sont en effet structurés par les acteurs et des institutions publiques et privées qui opèrent entre les pays d’origine et d’accueil des migrants. Le transnational dans cet article est entendu au sens de la politique transnationale des migrations et non au sens du transnationalisme des migrants. L’article décrit donc les stratégies politiques des États à l’échelle nationale et internationale (diplomatique) ainsi que l’ensemble des acteurs privés, notamment les entreprises pétrolières qui ont contribué à structurer à la fois les flux migratoires et la vie des migrants dans les monarchies du Golfe au cours du xxe siècle. À partir de cette description, on se propose de conceptualiser la gestion des migrations comme relevant d’un transnationalisme illibéral.
Nationalisme d'État et nationalisme ordinaire en Arabie Saoudite : la nation saoudienne et ses immigrés L E NATIONALISME D'ÉTAT SAOUDIEN a centré sur le référent islamique une construction nationale singulière. Entre construction de soi et relation à l'autre, l'État a travaillé à homogénéiser la nation saoudienne sur une base ethnique et religieuse en excluant du corps politique et social les millions de travailleurs étrangers « importés » pour assurer le développement économique du pays. L'hypothèse centrale de cette contribution est qu'en dépit de la violence à la fois réelle et symbolique dont font l'objet les étrangers en Arabie Saoudite, ces derniers participent à la reproduction d'une identité nationale saoudienne « informelle » ou « banale » liée aux conditions économiques et culturelles de la modernité et de la mondialisation, notamment à travers les pratiques de consommation des jeunes urbains 1. Loin d'être une « subversion » politisée du nationalisme d'État, ce nationalisme ordinaire des classes moyennes urbaines atténue dans une certaine mesure les frontières sociales et symboliques entre citoyens et étrangers. L'urbanisation, 1. L'objet de cet article n'est assurément pas de minimiser la « dépendance structurelle » voire la violence structurelle qui caractérise le rapport instauré entre immigrants et nationaux par le système de l'immigration de main d'oeuvre en Arabie Saoudite. Voir notamment sur ce point Anh Nga Longva, « Keeping Migrant Workers in Check :
How was the Saudi monarchy able to stave off the Arab Spring? One answer to this question lies in migration politics, which are integral to the regime's ad hoc survival strategies. An analysis of migration politics, moreover, brings to light longstanding dynamics of state transformation in what remains one of the largest immigration countries in the world. Drawing on discourse analysis, institutional history, and ethnographic fieldwork conducted in state bureaucracies, I explore the critical, albeit under-researched, role of migration politics in political change from the 1991 Gulf crisis to the 2011 uprisings. First, I show that, in times of crisis, Saudi monarchs made migration a central political issue: while maintaining mass immigration into the country, they used immigrants as scapegoats to deflect popular grievances and further individual power-seeking agendas. Secondly, I demonstrate that migration became a policy domain with its own rules, bureaucratic practices, power relations, and rationalitiesa process designed to impose a state monopoly over migration control. Thirdly, I introduce the notion of "migration rent" and use it to describe the changing social and power relations between migrants, citizens, and the state. Finally, I suggest that migration politics are key to understanding both short-and long-term political change.
This chapter offers an overview of Gulf migration systems from the early 20 th century to today. Mobility, motivated by trade, labor, politics or religious devotion, whether permanent or temporary, has been central to the region's history. The first section of the chapter describes the changing geographies of immigration to the Gulf through three historical sequences. Gulf migration systems evolved from imperial geographies of colonial migration within the British Empire (1930s-1950s) to Arab regional integration during and after the oil-boom era (1960s-1991). In the 1990s and after, diplomatic interdependence with the Asian Global South unfolded in the context of the diversification of Gulf economies and the "second migration boom" of the 2000s took place.The second part of the chapter focuses on the contemporary era and unpacks the dynamics of migration governance in Gulf countries today. It describes the role of states, markets, brokers and migrants in migration governance and illustrates the emergence of illiberal migration states, as a counter model to liberal migration states in Western contexts (Hollifield 2004).
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