Real-time energy management of a converter-based microgrid is difficult to determine optimal operating points of a storage system in order to save costs and minimise energy waste. This complexity arises due to time-varying electricity prices, stochastic energy sources and power demand. Many countries have imposed real-time electricity pricing to efficiently control demand side management. This paper presents a particle swarm optimisation (PSO) for the application of real-time energy management to find optimal battery controls of a community microgrid. The modification of the PSO consists in altering the cost function to better model the battery charging/discharging operations. As optimal control is performed by formulating an cost function, it is suitably analysed and then a dynamic penalty function to obtain the best cost function is proposed. Several case studies with different scenarios are conducted to determine the effectiveness of the proposed cost function. The proposed cost function can reduce operational cost by 12% as compared to the original cost function over a time horizon of 96 hours. Simulation results reveal the suitability of applying the regularised PSO algorithm with the proposed cost function, which can be adjusted according to the need of the community, for the real-time energy management.

Although microgrids facilitate the increased penetration of distributed generations (DGs) and improve the security of power supplies, they have some issues that need to be better understood and addressed before realising the full potential of microgrids. This paper presents a comprehensive list of challenges and opportunities supported by a literature review on the evolution of converter-based microgrids. The discussion in this paper presented with a view to establishing microgrids as distinct from the existing distribution systems. This is accomplished by, firstly, describing the challenges and benefits of using DG units in a distribution network and then those of microgrid ones. Also, the definitions, classifications and characteristics of microgrids are revised according to their specific roles to provide a sound basis for novice researchers to undertake ongoing research on microgrids.

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This paper presents closed-form mathematical models for an acoustic duct with general boundary conditions. These infinite-dimensional models are derived using symbolic computations. A new method to obtain finite dimensional approximations of infinitedimensional models using quartic functions is presented. The theoretical models are compared with the experimental data obtained for the KSU duct. The experimental results of a new robust broadband feedback controller, designed using passivity-based techniques, are presented. The controller design is shown to be robust to the unmodeled dynamics and parametric uncertainty.