Nanotechnology is one of the fastest-growing and most promising modern technologies. It deals with the manufacturing and use of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are generally known as small-sized particles possessing a size range of 1 to 100 nm. Due to their distinctive physicochemical and mechanical characteristics, they are utilized in various fields like agriculture, material science, food industry, medical, diagnostic, and cosmetic applications. One of the nanoparticles that is most frequently used nowadays is Zinc oxide nanoparticles. They have been explored for numerous biomedical applications, such as drug delivery, anticancer, antibacterial, antidiabetic, and bioimaging. Researchers expect that usage of Zinc oxide nanoparticles will expand so; the human body's exposure to them will increase. Zinc oxide .nanoparticles released into the environment could lead to adverse human and animal health effects. Recent studies concluded that Zinc oxide nanoparticles could cross some blood vital organs barriers and cell membranes, generate free radicals, and exhibit oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, and genotoxicity. Therefore, great attention must be taken to assess the toxicological aspects of nanoparticles.

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Drugs have been used for recreational purposes since time immemorial. Addicting potential and the propensity to harm has led to a ban on many of these drugs. New compounds are being developed to circumvent the ban. They are similar in effect to the banned drugs but are slightly different in their chemical structure so that they can escape detection in the standard drug tests. These drugs are commonly known as designer drugs or new psychoactive substances (NPS).This work aimed to do a comprehensive review on chemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of new designer drugs for establishing the basic knowledge about them, focusing on their assessment and management and recent methods for their detection.According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) classification, NPS include the following groups: Synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, piperazine, phenethylamines, ketamine analogues, plant-based substances(Kratom, Salvia Divinorum) and miscellaneous substances (aminoindanes and tryptamines). NPS have become a global phenomenon with over 100 countries and territories from all regions of the world having reported one or more NPS. Up to December 2015, more than 600 substances have been reported to the UNODC Early Warning Advisory (EWA) on NPS by Governments, laboratories and partner organizations.NPS represent a challenge both in forensic analytical toxicology as well as in clinical toxicology as they may cause serious toxicity and can escape detection in the standard drug tests.Clinicians should keep designer drugs in mind when evaluating substance use in young adults or in anyone presenting with acute neuropsychiatric complaintsCoordination among emergency medical personnel, forensic toxicologists, scientific researchers, law enforcement and policymakers is essential to foster more effective responses in dealing with this evolving drug-abuse phenomenon.

Introduction: Nowadays, zinc oxide nanoparticles are considered one of the commonly used nanoparticles. They are utilized in numerous fields as agriculture, industry and biomedicine. Zinc oxide nanoparticles are widely used as food additive and in food packaging because of their antibacterial properties. Many commercial products as sun protection creams and daily-care products contain zinc oxide nanoparticles. Aim : The aim of the study was to evaluate the subacute toxicity of different doses of orally administrated zinc oxide nanoparticles on testis. Methods:The study was conducted on forty adult male albino rats divided into four groups (10 rats per group); Group I: control group, Group II: received 10 mg/kg/day zinc oxide nanoparticles, Group III: received 100 mg/kg/day zinc oxide nanoparticles, Group IV: received 200 mg/kg/day zinc oxide nanoparticles orally for 28 days. Serum testosterone level and oxidative stress biomarkers in testicular tissue including malondialdehyde, glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase were estimated. Histopathological examination of the testis by light microscope was also, performed. Results: Zinc oxide nanoparticles induced significant decrease in serum testosterone, elevation of malondialdehyde and decrease the activity of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase in testis in a dose dependent manner as toxicity was more obvious in high doses. Significant histopathological changes were detected. Conclusion:The study concluded that subacute oral exposure to zinc oxide nanoparticles might cause toxic effects on testis through oxidative stress and high doses have more toxic action. Recommendations: Great attention must be given about the field of nanotoxicology to evaluate the potential toxic effects of nanoparticles on human health.

Background: One of the most essential and commonly utilized nanoparticles is zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs). They are widely used in commercial items such as sunscreens and daily-care products, as well as in the food industry as a food additive and in food packaging because of their antibacterial and fungicidal properties. Aim: The study aimed to evaluate the subacute toxic effects of different doses of ZnO-NPs on the kidneys of adult male albino rats. Methods: Forty adult male albino rats were divided into four groups (10 rats per group); Group I served as the control (Negative control), Group II ZnO-NPs treated group (10mg/kg/day), Group III ZnO-NPs treated group (100mg/kg/day) and Group IV ZnO-NPs treated group (200mg/kg/day) for 28 days orally. The levels of serum urea, creatinine, uric acid, and zinc were estimated. Furthermore, oxidative stress markers in kidney tissue, including malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were estimated. Histopathological examination of the kidney tissues by light microscope was performed. Results: Oral ZnO-NPs induced a significant increase in serum creatinine, urea, uric acid, and zinc in a dose-dependent manner as the higher the dose the more significant toxicity. Zinc oxide nanoparticles induced a significant elevation of MDA and a significant decrease in the antioxidant enzymes SOD and GPx in kidney tissue also in a dose-dependent manner as toxicity is more evident in the high doses. Also, significant histopathological changes were detected in the kidney tissues. Conclusion: It can be concluded that subacute oral administration of ZnO-NPs induces nephrotoxic effects in a dose-dependent manner. The present study recommends that full attention must be given to evaluating the safety and toxicological issues of nanoparticles on the tissue, cells, and macromolecule of the human body.