Armed conflict patterns have drastically changed since the post-cold war period. In Sub-Saharan Africa, armed conflict continues to be persistent and on the rise. Kenya has not experienced civil war, but has experienced intra-state conflicts which display themselves as political, natural resources, ethnicity, land, and environmental conflicts. This study aimed to identify patterns and trends of armed conflict in Kenya. Secondary data from Armed Conflict and Location Events Data (ACLED) for the period 15 th January 1997 to 25 th February 2021 was used. Exploratory data analysis and generalized additive model were used to identify patterns and trends. For the period studied, 7,437-armed conflict events and 11,071 fatalities were recorded. There was a non-linear trend and a general increase in the number of armed conflict cases in Kenya. The peaks in the non-linear trend were observed during the years 2002, 2007, 2013 and 2017. On the contrary, the number of fatalities from armed conflict decreased over time and had a non-linear trend, with peaks in the years 1998, 2001, 2007, 2013 and, 2017. Similarly, there was a reduction in the number of fatalities per armed conflict over time with 149 fatalities per 100-armed conflict events recorded in the study period. Linear and non-linear trend of armed conflict events was observed at the county levels, with counties like Nairobi and Nakuru having a non-linear trend similar to the overall trend. The number of events of armed conflict for riots and protests event type had a non-linear trend while the rest had a linear trend with a positive slope. Violence Against Civilians (VAC) event type had the highest number of events followed by Riots and Protests. Additionally, VAC had the highest number of fatalities followed by Battles and Riots. In terms of fatalities per armed conflict, Explosions/Remote violence event type had the highest fatality rate followed by Battles and VAC. The peaks in the number of armed conflict cases and fatalities were observed in the years in which general elections were conducted in Kenya.

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Expanding agricultural irrigation efforts to enhance food security and socioeconomic development in sub-Saharan Africa may affect malaria transmission and socioeconomic variables that increase the risk of anemia in local communities. We compared the prevalence of anemia, Plasmodium falciparum infection, and indicators of socioeconomic status related to nutrition in communities in Homa Bay County, Kenya, where an agricultural irrigation scheme has been implemented, to that in nearby communities where there is no agricultural irrigation. Cross-sectional surveys conducted showed that anemia prevalence defined by WHO criteria (hemoglobin < 11 g/dL) was less in communities in the irrigated areas than in the non-irrigated areas during the wet season (38.9% and 51.5%, χ2 = 4.29, P = 0.001) and the dry season (25.2% and 34.1%, χ2 = 7.33, P = 0.007). In contrast, Plasmodium falciparum infection prevalence was greater during the wet season in irrigated areas than in non-irrigated areas (15.3% versus 7.8%, χ2 = 8.7, P = 0.003). There was, however, no difference during the dry season (infection prevalence, < 1.8%). Indicators of nutritional status pertinent to anemia pathogenesis such as weekly consumption of non–heme- and heme-containing foods and household income were greater in communities located within the irrigation scheme versus those outside the irrigation scheme (P < 0.0001). These data indicate that current agricultural irrigation schemes in malaria-endemic communities in this area have reduced the risk of anemia. Future studies should include diagnostic tests of iron deficiency, parasitic worm infections, and genetic hemoglobin disorders to inform public health interventions aimed at reducing community anemia burden.

Indigenous chicken farming is an important source of livelihood for rural families in Kenya. However, the farmers experience challenges including infections from poultry diseases such as Newcastle disease. Vaccination has been used over the years to provide immunity in flocks against disease outbreaks. However, Newcastle diseases virus (NDV) outbreaks are still reported among vaccinated flocks. This study examined the presence of Newcastle disease virus among vaccinated indigenous chicken (IC), in relation to weather (temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed), production system, and interspecies interaction. Samples were collected from flocks of indigenous chicken vaccinated with NDV vaccine from 68 households in six counties in Kenya (Bomet, Baringo, Kilifi, Nakuru, Kakamega, and Machakos). Some of the households (n=5 (9%) reported previous ND outbreaks. All the households had other mixed species of birds (ducks, geese, turkey, wild birds). The total number of samples collected was n=1210, oropharyngeal swabs-650, cloacal swab-650. The total number of the pooled sample was 246 pools. The samples were analysed by RT-qPCR targeting the NDV matrix gene. NDV matrix gene was detected in the pooled samples n=177(72%). Out of the positive samples, n=56(32%) were from vaccinated flocks, 91(51%) were from the cloacal swab and 86(49%) from the oropharyngeal swab. The samples were collected during varying weather (temperature, rainfall, humidity and wind speed). There was a statistical significance on the relationship between the presence of NDV and the Vaccination history (p=0.034); production system, (p=0.004), and month of sample collection (p<0.0001). However, there was no significance on the relationship between the presence of NDV and the interaction of IC and other birds. Failure to vaccinate IC results in the presence of the NDV. The free-range production system can have many cases of NDV due to the lack of biosecurity measures. Therefore, farmers should be advised to vaccinate their IC.