This ongoing monitoring study provides forensic search teams with systematic geophysical data over simulated clandestine graves for comparison to active cases. Simulated “wrapped,” “naked,” and “control” burials were created. Multiple geophysical surveys were collected over 6 years, here showing data from 4 to 6 years after burial. Electrical resistivity (twin electrode and ERI), multifrequency GPR, grave and background soil water were collected. Resistivity surveys revealed that the naked burial had low‐resistivity anomalies up to year four but then difficult to image, whereas the wrapped burial had consistent large high‐resistivity anomalies. GPR 110‐ to 900‐MHz frequency surveys showed that the wrapped burial could be detected throughout, but the naked burial was either not detectable or poorly resolved. 225‐MHz frequency GPR data were optimal. Soil water analyses showed decreasing (years 4 to 5) to background (year 6) conductivity values. Results suggest both resistivity and GPR surveying if burial style unknown, with winter to spring surveys optimal and increasingly important as time increases.

19Graveyards and cemeteries around the world are being increasingly designated as full. 20There is a growing requirement to identify burial spaces or to exhume and then re-inter 21 burials if necessary. Near-surface geophysical methods offer a potentially non-invasive 22 target detection solution; however there has been lack of research to identify optimal 23 detection methods using such geophysical techniques. This study has collected multi-24 frequency (225 MHz -900 MHz) ground penetrating radar, electrical resistivity and 25 magnetic susceptibility surface data over known burial sites with different burial ages and 26 UK church graveyards. Results indicate that progressively older burials are more difficult to 27 detect but successful grave detection is complicated by soil type. Different geophysical 28 techniques were optimal in the three sites surveyed, which therefore suggests a multi-29 technique approach should be utilised by survey practitioners. Graveyard geophysical targets 30 included the grave soil present above earth-cut graves, the grave contents themselves, brick-31 lining (if present) and grave soil leachate plumes that are all geophysically detectable from 32 background levels. Grave markers were also identified as not always being located where the 33 burials were positioned. This study clearly demonstrates the value of these techniques in 34 grave detection and inform search teams detecting clandestine burials. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 Globally, graveyards and cemeteries are suffering from a severe lack of burial space. 42With an estimated 55 million individuals dying globally each year (de Sousa, 2015), the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 (Reynolds, 2011; Pringle et al. 2012a Pringle et al. /2016 Gaffney et al. 2015). Electrical resistivity 77 surveys have been successfully used to locate unmarked burials in cemeteries (see, e.g. 78Matias et al. 2006; Hansen et al. 2014; Buyuksarac et al. 2015). Controlled studies on 79 modern burials evidencing that decompositional fluids may be the dominant factor in graves 80 that is detected electrically (see Jervis et al. 2009; Pringle et al. 2012b), and may be retained 81 in grave soil for considerable periods of time post-burial (see Pringle et al. 2015a). However, 82it is important to note that the style of formal burials and clandestine graves of murder 83 victims are usually quite different in terms of structure, depth and complexity of the burial 84 contents (Fig. 1). Apart from graveyards and cemeteries being reused, partially excavated, 85topsoil removed, etc. the graves present can also vary in style from earth-cut (as shown in 86 Fig. 1) to...

The Crossrail underground network extension discovered well preserved skeletons shallowly buried in Central London in 2013. Subsequent carbon dating and aDNA analysis confirmed the archaeological age and presence of the Yersinia pestis "Black Death" plague epidemic strain. Here we present the non-invasive multi-proxy geophysical survey of the adjacent Charterhouse Square, rapidly undertaken to detect any further burials and characterise the site. Historical records suggested the area was a burial ground for Black Death plague victims, before subsequent cemetery and urban land use. Following initial trial surveys, surveys imaged ~200 isolated and similar-sized burials in the southwest of the site. There were also two contrasting burial orientations present at various depths which suggested a series of controlled phased burials. A well-defined eastern burial boundary, taking the form of a ditch and bank, was also discovered. Geophysical surveys also identified a subsequent complex site history with multiple-aged features. This study revises knowledge of Black Death aged-burials and provides important implications for successful geophysical burial detection with significant time-and space-limited site constraints.

In homicide investigations, it is critically important that post-mortem (PMI) and post-burial interval (PBI) of buried victims are determined accurately. However, clandestine graves can be difficult to locate; and the detection rates for a variety of search methods can be very low. This paper presents elemental analysis results of 18 months of decomposition fluids from an in situ buried animal cadaver used as a human clandestine burial proxy. Study results showed potassium, sulphate and sodium are key detectable elements which mirror observed conductivity temporal changes from this and other studies. Seasonal rainfall has a strong influence on both fluid generation and subsequent concentration which needs to be accounted for. Study implications suggest inorganic elements could provide both detection and potential dating of discovered clandestine burials.