Purpose of Review With increasing numbers of transgender and gender non-binary individuals presenting for care, knowing how to elucidate the mental health and cognitive outcomes of gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT) is necessary. This article reviews the present literature covering GAHT effects on mood, behavioral health, and cognition in these individuals and offers research priorities to address knowledge gaps. Recent Findings Although there are some conflicting data, GAHToverwhelmingly seems to have positive psychological effects in both adolescents and adults. Research tends to support that GAHT reduces symptoms of anxiety and depression, lowers perceived and social distress, and improves quality of life and self-esteem in both male-to-female and female-to-male transgender individuals. Summary Clinically, prescribing GAHT can help with gender dysphoria-related mental distress. Thus, timely hormonal intervention represents a crucial tool for improving behavioral wellness in transgender individuals, though effects on cognitive processes fundamental for daily living are unknown. Future research should prioritize better understanding of how GAHT may affect executive functioning.

BackgroundDiarrhoea is a leading cause of child mortality in Tanzania. The association between optimal infant feeding practices and diarrhoea has been reported elsewhere, but the evidence has been limited to promote and advocate for strategic interventions in Tanzania. This study examined the association between infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices and diarrhoea in Tanzanian children under 24 months.MethodsThe study used the Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey data to estimate the prevalence of diarrhoea stratified by IYCF practices. Using multivariable logistic regression modelling that adjusted for confounding factors and cluster variability, the association between IYCF practices and diarrhoea among Tanzanian children was investigated.ResultsDiarrhoea prevalence was lower in infants aged 0–5 months whose mothers engaged in exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) and predominant breastfeeding (PBF) compared to those who were not exclusively and predominantly breastfed. Infants aged 6–8 months who were introduced to complementary foods had a higher prevalence of diarrhoea compared to those who received no complementary foods, that is, infants who were exclusively breastfed at 6–8 months. Infants who were exclusively and predominantly breastfed were less likely to experience diarrhoea compared to those who were not exclusively and predominantly breastfed [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.31, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.16–0.59, P < 0.001 for EBF and AOR = 0.30, 95% CI 0.10–0.89, P = 0.031 for PBF]. In contrast, infants aged 6–8 months who were introduced to complementary foods were more likely to experience diarrhoea compared to those who received no complementary foods (AOR = 2.91, 95% CI 1.99–4.27, P < 0.001).ConclusionsThe study suggests that EBF and PBF were protective against diarrhoeal illness in Tanzanian children, while the introduction of complementary foods was associated with the onset of diarrhoea. Strengthening IYCF (facility- and community-based) programmes would help to improve feeding behaviours of Tanzanian women and reduce diarrhoea burden in children under 2 years.

Sex differences and hormonal effects in presumed cisgender individuals have been well-studied and support the concept of a mosaic of both male and female "characteristics" in any given brain. Gonadal steroid increases and fluctuations during peri-puberty and across the reproductive lifespan influence the brain structure and function programmed by testosterone and estradiol exposures in utero. While it is becoming increasingly common for transgender and gender non-binary individuals to block their transition to puberty and/or use gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT) to obtain their desired gender phenotype, little is known about the impact of these manipulations on brain structure and function. Using sex differences and the effects of reproductive hormones in cisgender individuals as the backdrop, we summarize here the existing nascent neuroimaging and behavioral literature focusing on potential brain and cognitive differences in transgender individuals at baseline and after GAHT. Research in this area has the potential to inform our understanding of the developmental origins of gender identity and sex difference in response to gonadal steroid manipulations, but care is needed in our research questions and methods to not further stigmatize sex and gender minorities.