We report that simple, synthetic organic polymer nanoparticles (NPs) can capture and clear a target peptide toxin in the bloodstream of living mice. The protein-size polymer nanoparticles, with a binding affinity and selectivity comparable to natural antibodies, were prepared by combining a functional monomer optimization strategy with molecular imprinting nanoparticle synthesis. As a result of binding and removal of melittin by NPs in vivo, mortality and peripheral toxic symptoms of melittin were significantly diminished. In vivo imaging of the polymer nanoparticles or "plastic antibodies" establishes the NPs accelerate clearance of the peptide from blood where they accumulate in the liver. Coupled with their biocompatibility and nontoxic characteristics, plastic antibodies offer potential for neutralizing a wide range of biomacromolecules in vivo.In nature, antibodies recognize target molecules by a combination of multiple weak electrostatic, hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding interactions between complementary threedimensional surfaces. To mimic these interactions, nanoparticles (NPs) with affinity for a target peptide or protein have been synthesized by optimizing the composition and ratio of functional groups that make up the NPs.1 , 2 However, the specificity and affinity of the random yhoshino@uci.edu; kjshea@uci.edu. Supporting Information Available: Experimental procedures and supporting data. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org. We have developed methods for synthesizing protein-size polymer particles with a binding affinity and selectivity comparable to natural antibodies by combining molecular imprinting nanoparticle synthesis with a functional monomer optimization strategy (Figure 1).9 The first stage of this process involves screening small libraries of NPs that span a compositional space chosen for its complementarity to the biological target. 2 The affinity of each NP to the biological target is evaluated and the composition of subsequent NP generations is adjusted to enhance specificity. At the final stage the optimized combination and ratio of functional monomers are polymerized in the presence of the imprinting biological target (peptide or epitope). 9 Following extensive dialysis, polymer NPs exhibit binding affinity, selectivity and particle size comparable to natural antibodies in vitro. NIH Public AccessAlthough molecular recognition by imprinted materials has been extensively studied in controlled settings, little is reported about their application in the bloodstream of living animals. 10 It is well known that the performance (affinity, specificity and function) of synthetic materials when introduced into a complex biological milieu can be profoundly compromised. Introduction of foreign substances including synthetic NPs into the bloodstream results in the immediate formation of a "corona" of proteins on the surface that can alter and/or suppress the intended function of the NP. 11 Further complications can arise fron an immunogenic re...

Synthetic polymer nanoparticles (NPs) that bind venomous molecules and neutralize their function in vivo are of significant interest as "plastic antidotes." Recently, procedures to synthesize polymer NPs with affinity for target peptides have been reported. However, the performance of synthetic materials in vivo is a far greater challenge. Particle size, surface charge, and hydrophobicity affect not only the binding affinity and capacity to the target toxin but also the toxicity of NPs and the creation of a "corona" of proteins around NPs that can alter and or suppress the intended performance. Here, we report the design rationale of a plastic antidote for in vivo applications. Optimizing the choice and ratio of functional monomers incorporated in the NP maximized the binding affinity and capacity toward a target peptide. Biocompatibility tests of the NPs in vitro and in vivo revealed the importance of tuning surface charge and hydrophobicity to minimize NP toxicity and prevent aggregation induced by nonspecific interactions with plasma proteins. The toxin neutralization capacity of NPs in vivo showed a strong correlation with binding affinity and capacity in vitro. Furthermore, in vivo imaging experiments established the NPs accelerate clearance of the toxic peptide and eventually accumulate in macrophages in the liver. These results provide a platform to design plastic antidotes and reveal the potential and possible limitations of using synthetic polymer nanoparticles as plastic antidotes.

Bifidobacterium, one of the major components of intestinal microflora, shows anti-influenza virus (IFV) potential as a probiotic, partly through enhancement of innate immunity by modulation of the intestinal immune system. Bifidobacterium longum MM-2 (MM-2), a very safe bacterium in humans, was isolated from healthy humans and its protective effect against IFV infection in a murine model shown. In mice that were intranasally inoculated with IFV, oral administration of MM-2 for 17 consecutive days improved clinical symptoms, reduced mortality, suppressed inflammation in the lower respiratory tract, and decreased virus titers, cell death, and proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-a in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. The anti-IFV mechanism of MM-2 involves innate immunity through significant increases in NK cell activities in the lungs and spleen and a significant increase in pulmonary gene expression of NK cell activators such as IFN-g, IL-2, IL-12 and IL-18. Even in non-infected mice, MM-2 administration also induced significant enhancement of both IFN-g production by Peyer's patch cells (PPs) and splenetic NK cell activity. Oral administration of MM-2 for 17 days activates systemic immunoreactivity in PPs, which contributes to innate immunity, including NK cell activation, resulting in an anti-IFV effect. MM-2 as a probiotic may function as a prophylactic agent in the management of an IFV epidemic.

No abstract

The present study demonstrated the three-dimensional architecture of peri-insular nerve plexuses in the murine pancreas by the combined use of light microscopy of S-100 immunostained sections, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of thin sections, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of KOH digested tissues. By light microscopy of thin sections immunostained with anti-S-100 antibody, Schwann cells were often found on the margin of the islets as if delimiting the islet and exocrine parenchyma. In thick sections, Schwann cells of the islet connected their thin and slender processes with each other to form a delicate network on the surface of the islet. By TEM, Schwann cells were observed as an attenuated sheet that invested the surface of the islet. Axon terminals were usually found on the outer surface of these membranous Schwann cells. SEM of KOH digested tissues revealed that nerves reaching the islet spread on the insular surface. Schwann cells in this portion extended their thin membranous processes, which directly covered the basal part of several endocrine cells as a whole. Numerous axons with varicosities were usually found on the surface of these membranous Schwann cells, but sometimes crept beneath them. These findings indicate that "the interstitial cells" described by light microscopists are peculiar-shaped Schwann cells present in the islets. The functional significance of the rich innervation of the islets is also briefly discussed in the present study.